Chapter 19 - Consumer Concerns about Foods and Water · Consumer Concerns about Foods and Water ......
Transcript of Chapter 19 - Consumer Concerns about Foods and Water · Consumer Concerns about Foods and Water ......
Environmental Contaminants
• Substance that does not normally occur in food
• Biggest contaminants:
– Heavy metals: accumulate in body (lead, mercury, selenium)
– Industry dumps mercury in water --> fish --> people
– Lead poisoning: lead paint; lead pipes --> H2O
Environmental Contaminants
• Halogenated compounds: organic --> can be
metabolized, but resistant and build up
– PCB (Polychlorinated biphenyl) --> leaked into
rice oil in Japan --> 22 deaths
• How big problem?
– Safety precautions
– Accident --> high risk of toxicity
– Adequate diet, optimal health, variety
Persistent Defined
Existing for a long or longer than usual
time or continuously: as continuing
without change in function or structure
<persistent gills> or effective in the open
for an appreciable time usually through
slow volatilizing <mustard gas is
persistent> or degraded only slowly by
the environment <persistent pesticides>
Merriam-Webster Dictionary
What Persistent Chemical Pollutants?
Toxic to humans and animals
Persist in the environment
Do not break down
Bioaccumulate in animals
becoming part of the food
chain
Tend to be widespread
Persistent Environmental Contaminants
Various names depending on agency
U.S. EPA Persistent
Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT)
United Nations Persistent Organic
Pollutant (POP)
Persistent Organic Pollutants
“Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs) are chemical substances
that persist in the environment,
bioaccumulate through the food
web, and pose a risk of causing
adverse effects to human health and
the environment.”
UN Environment Program
http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/
Quote / History
“These (British Columbia, Canada &
Washington, U.S.) killer (Orca) whales can
now be considered among the most
contaminated marine mammals in the
world”
Dr. Peter Ross, Institute of Ocean Studies
From Advertisement for ORTHO Lindane – 1953
“Check These ORTHO Lindane Advantages:
High Safety Factor – Authorities have approved
Lindane for lice and mange control on dairy cattle.
Shows no contamination in milk when properly
applied. …. Even used by dermatologists for human
itch, lice and scabies. Not cumulative and practically
odorless. Any taken in by a warm-blooded animal is
eliminated.”
ORTHO Lindane – 1953
DDT – widely used 1950s and 1960s –
now banned
PCBs – low flammable oil - widely
distributed in environment – now
banned
Historical Events
• Aldrin/Dieldrin
• Benzo(a)pyrene
• Cadmium
• Chlordane
• DDT, DDD, DDE
• Dicofol
• Dioxins (TCDD) &
Furans
• Endrin
• Endosulfan
• Hexachlorobenzene
Persistent Chemicals I
Persistent Chemicals II
• Heptachlor
• alkyl-lead
• Lindane
• Mercury
• Methoxychlor
• Mirex
• Octachlorostyrene
• Polychlorinated biophenyl’s
(PCBs)
Persistent Chemicals III
• Pendimethalin
• Pentabromo diphenyl ether
• Pentachloronitrobenzene
• Polybrominated Hydrocarbons
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
• Tin (organotins)
• Toxaphene
• Trifluralin
• 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene
Chemical Toxicity I
Aldrin/Dieldrin
Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –
Used to control mosquitoes and termites
Importation and manufacture prohibited in the
U.S. in 1987.
Chlordane
Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –
Used to control mosquitoes and termites
Chemical Toxicity II
DDT, DDD, DDE
Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –
Used to control mosquitoes – Importation and
manufacture prohibited in the U.S. in 1972.
Affects wildlife – found in breast milk and fat
Dioxins (TCDD) & Furans
By product of combustion – Bioaccumulates –
municipal and medical waste incinerators –
human carcinogen
Chemical Toxicity III
Lead
Metal – Widely distributed in environment when
used as a gasoline additive and in paint. Now
banned from use in gasoline and paint. Potent
child neurotoxicant
Mercury
Metal – Persistent – Bioaccumulates –
Contaminates many species of fish. Widely used
in industrial processes. Cause developmental
neurotoxicity – children most susceptible
Chemical Toxicity IV
Mirex
Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –
Extensively used in U.S. from 1962-1978 to
control fire ants. All use canceled in U.S. in 1978
Pentabromo diphenyl ether (PBDEs)
Widely used as flame retardant in fabric and
plastics – highly persistent – recently found in
women’s breast milk
Chemical Toxicity V
Polychlorinated biophenyl’s (PCBs)
Heat and fire resistant – extensively used from
1929 and 1977 in electrical transformers – all
manufacture banned – extensively regulated –
very widespread global contaminate
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Combustion by products – class of 100
chemicals – combustion by products from oil to
tobacco. Some of the first known carcinogens.
Chemical Toxicity VI Tin (organotins)
Organotins are used in a number of consumer
products including paint as a pesticide.
Bioaccumulates and persistent, effects nervous
system
Toxaphene
Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –
Extensively used on U.S. cotton crops from 1947
to 1980. Manufacture and use prohibited in the
U.S.
Integrated Pest Management
"Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) is a sustainable approach
to managing pests by combining
biological, cultural, physical and
chemical tools in a way that
minimizes economic, health and
environmental risks."
Environmental Contaminants
• Concerns of environmental contamination are many, but hazards are relatively small.
• It is important to be an informed consumer, keep alert to the possibility of contamination, and listen to public health announcements.
• Eating a variety of foods is an effective defensive strategy.
Environmental Contaminants
• Harmfulness of Environmental
Contaminants
– Depends on its persistence
– Each level of the food chain has a greater
concentration then the one below, known as
bioaccumulation.
– Heavy metals and organic halogens can enter
the food supply.
– Methylmercury
• Can result in blindness, deafness, and lack of
coordination, affects the intellect, and can cause
death
• Fish can become contaminated with
methylmercury.
• Infants born to pregnant women who consume
methylmercury can be affected.
Environmental Contaminants
• Harmfulness of Environmental Contaminants
– PBB and PCB
• Polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) was mixed with livestock
feed in Michigan and caused nervous system problems and
liver disorders in those who consumed the meat of the
livestock.
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were found in rice oil in
Taiwan and resulted in fertility problems in men and women
who had children with developmental issues.
Environmental Contaminants
• Guidelines for Consumers
– Hazards appear to be small.
– FDA regulates
– Health agencies provide advisories (mercury).
– The EPA regulates commercial fishing.
– States test and monitor their own lakes and
rivers.
42 Chemicals and 9 found to
contaminate water in USA Acetochlor
Alachlor ESA
Aluminum
Boron
Bromobenzene
Dacthal diacid degradate
Dacthal monoacid degradate
DDE
Diazinon
1,1-Dichloroethane
2,4-Dichlorophenol
1,3-Dichloropropane
2,2-Dichloropropane
1,1-Dichloropropene
1,3-Dichloropropene
2,4-Dinitrophenol
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
2,6-Dinitrotoluene
1,2-Diphenylhydrazine
Disulfoton
Diuron
EPTC
Fonofos
p-Isopropyltoluene
Linuron
Methylbromide
Methyl-butyl ether (MTBE)
2-Methylphenol
Metolachlor
Molinate
Nitrobenzene
Organotins
Perchlorate
Prometon
RDX
Terbacil
Terbufos
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Triazines
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
Vanadium
Adenoviruses
Aeromonas hydrophila
Caliciviruses
Coxsackieviruses
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and toxins
Echoviruses
Helicobacter pylori
Microsporidia
Mycobacterium avium intercellulare
Natural Toxicants in Foods
• Many foods contain natural toxicants.
• It is the quantity consumed and the chemical structure of the contaminate, not the source, that makes it hazardous.
• Poisonous mushrooms
• Goitrogens in some vegetables
• Cyanogens that produce cyanide
• Solanine in potatoes
Natural Toxicants
• Cabbage family:
– Goitrogens
• Potatoes:
– Solanine: inhibits nerve impulses
• Spinach:
– Oxalates: bind Calcium and Iron
• Lima Beans and Fruit Seeds:
– Cyanogens: produce cyanide
Poisonous mushrooms
• Aims of the section:
• Learn about Pesticides and their effects on
the environment.
• Be able to answer exam questions on the
effects.
• Learn about Pesticides and their effects
• Summarise the key points about
pesticides
Definition - EPA
“…a pesticide is any substance or mixture of
substances intended for preventing,
destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.”
“…a pest is any harmful, destructive, or
troublesome animal, plant or microorganism.”
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Definition - FIFRA
“… any substance or mixture of substances
intended for preventing, destroying, repelling
or mitigating any insects, rodents, nematodes,
fungi, or weeds or any other form of life
declared to be pests. … and any substance or
mixture of substances intended for use as a
plant regulator, defoliant or desiccant.”
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA – 1947)
1690 – Nicotine - water extracted from
tobacco leaves sprayed on plants as
insecticide
1700’s – Strychnine – extracted from plant
used to kill rodents
1800’s – Arsenic trioxide – weed killer
1800’s – Rotenone – extracted from plants
as insecticide
1800’s – Pyrethrum – extracted from
chrysanthemum as insecticide
1900’s – lead arsenate – orchard insecticide
Historical Awareness
1930’s – “ginger jake paralysis” –
during prohibition, alcoholic Jamaican
ginger
1962 – “Silent Spring” by Rachel
Carson exposed the hazards of DDT
1975 – Works made ill from Kepone
manufacture in Hopewell, Virginia
Historical Events
1690 – Nicotine - water extracted from
tobacco leaves sprayed on plants as
insecticide
1700’s – Strychnine – extracted from plant
used to kill rodents
1800’s – Arsenic trioxide – weed killer
1800’s – Rotenone – extracted from plants
as insecticide
1800’s – Pyrethrum – extracted from
chrysanthemum as insecticide
1900’s – lead arsenate – orchard insecticide
Historical Awareness
1930’s – “ginger jake paralysis” –
during prohibition, alcoholic Jamaican
ginger
1962 – “Silent Spring” by Rachel
Carson exposed the hazards of DDT
1975 – Works made ill from Kepone
manufacture in Hopewell, Virginia
Historical Events
Right-to-Know
Pesticides must be labeled. The “label” includes
the actual label on the container and literature that
comes with the pesticide.
Employees have a legal right to know what
chemicals they may be exposed to and to review
the “label” or Material Safety Data Sheets for
those chemicals.
A pesticide label is a legal document.
Material Safety Data Sheets • MSDS give the user information needed to use the
chemical safely, including:
• Manufacturer contact information
• Components, contaminants, and exposure limits
• Fire and explosion data
• Toxicity data
• Health hazards
• Effects of exposure
• Emergency and first aid
• Appropriate protective equipment
Sample Pesticide Label
Ingredients
Formulation
Child
Warning
Directions
Manufacturer
Registry No.
Storage &
Disposal
Re-entry
Statement
Classes Of Pesticides
Insecticides (kill insects) • Organochlorines
• Organophosphates
• Carbamates
• Synthetic Pyrethroids
Herbicides (kill plants)
Rodenticides (kill rodents)
Fungicides (kill fungus)
Fumigants (kill whatever)
Insecticides
Insecticides (kill insects) • Organochlorines
• Organophosphates
• Carbamates
• Synthetic Pyrethroids
Organochlorines
Examples DDT, methoxychlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, kepone, lindane, chlordane
Toxicity Acute toxicity variable, CNS – convulsions,
coma
Environmental characteristics Highly persistent in environment, fat soluble,
bioaccumulation, biomagnification
Mostly banned in US and Europe
Organophosphates-1
Examples Malathion, parathion, guthion, diazinon,
TPN, TOCP, nerve gases – tabun, sarin, soman, VX
Toxicity Acute toxicity highly variable –
Parathion, TPN, sarin very toxic, malathion much less
Environmental characteristics Rapidly degrade in outdoor environment
(last longer in doors), do not bioaccumulate
Organophosphates-2
Mechanism of toxicity Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in
nerve tissue
Symptoms Over-stimulation of parasympathetic nervous
system --- salivation, constricted pupils,
diarrhea, sweating, muscle twitching, CNS
disturbances – coma and death
Treatment Reverse AchE inhibition effects – use
Atropine to block Ach receptors or AchE
inhibiton with 2-PAM
Organophosphates-3
Other Toxic Effects
• Delayed peripheral neuropathy (TOCP)
• Not a carcinogen or teratogen
• Possible long term neurological
consequences from repeated
exposures
Carbamates
Examples Sevin (carbaryl), Baygon (propoxur), Temik
(aldicarb)
Toxicity Aldicarb very toxic, others less toxic
Mechanism and signs of toxicity Similar to organophosphates
Environmental characteristics Not persistent in environment
Pyrethroids
Synthetic Pyrethroids Based on naturally occurring pyrethrums –
from chrysanthemum flowers
Discovered by Chinese in 100 AD
First commercial use in 1800’s
First synthetic pyrethroids in 1980
Relatively low animal toxicity
Effects movement of cellular Na+ (sodium)
Use Growing rapidly
Herbicides (Kill Plants)
Silvex, 2,4-D, D,4,5-T Most widely used
Possible carcinogen
Contaminated with TCDD (dioxin)
(older formulations)
Paraquat & diquat Serious toxicity following accumulation
in lungs – production of oxygen “free
radicals” – often fatal once started
Rodenticides (kill rodents)
Botanicals Red squill – effects heart
Strychnine – blocks glycine receptors in
spinal cord - convulsions
Inorganics Phosphorous – GI track
Thallium – hair loss, nervous system
Zinc phosphide – GI track
Anticoagulants Warfarin – inhibits blood clotting
Vacor – newer blood clot inhibitors
Fungicides (kill fungi/mold)
Early Examples
Sulfur, cooper sulfate
Mercury based compounds
Hexachlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Dithiocarbamates
Mechanism of Action- How
they work Oganochlorines & Pyrethroids
- Enzymes, axonal membranes
(Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl-)
Organophosphates &
Carbamates
- excess acetylcholine
Problems with pesticides
• Pesticides are a continued public health
concern
• Ideally, they should works on insects then
disappears…. but in
• Reality, water/soil contamination,
accumulate in tissue
Problems with pesticides
• Bioaccumulate – example DDT, PCB
• 35,000 or more commercial
products that use pesticides
• Many pesticides are neurotoxic
(affect the nervous system)
• Many kill desirable insects or plants
• Contaminate streams and lakes
Occupational Exposure
Farms & Farm worker
Pesticide applicator
Manufacture
Mixing and handling
Landscapers
Many more ……
Other Exposure
Dietary exposure
• Pesticide residues on crops
Community exposure
• Airborne drift from commercial app
Contaminated drinking water • Leaching from soils to ground water
Chlordane “Chlordane America’s leading lawn and
garden insecticide. Used extensively by
pest control operators for termite control,
because of its long lasting effectiveness.”
Velsicol Chemical Corporation –
Advertisement – 1959
U.S. EPA lists chlordane as a persistent
bioaccumulative toxic. In 1978, EPA
cancelled use of chlordane on food crops
and 1988 all use was banned.
DDT
Cl C
H
CCl3
• Organochlorine insecticide
• 1945 control of mosquitoes
• Effective but very persistent
• Very soluble in fat
• Damaged bird eggs
• The next few slides indicate how
pesticides bioaccumulate, and note that
the problems with them stem from their
wide spread use.
Organophosphates Map
Organophosphorus pesticide occurrence and distribution in
surface and ground water of the United States, 1992-97
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/publications/abstracts/ofr00-187.html
Use in the US and Globally
How many pounds of
pesticide are use each year
in the US? In the world?
How many dollars is this?
US Total - 1997
Type
Billions of
Pounds Percent
Conventional Pesticides 0.97 21
Other pesticides chemicals 0.26 6
Subtotal (Agriculture Based) 1.23 27
Wood preservatives 0.66 14
Specialty biocides 0.27 6
Chlorine/hypochlorites 2.46 53
Grand Total 4.63 100
Source: EPA OPP, 1997
Chlorine/hypochlorites: water disinfectants
US & World Use - 1997
Source: EPA OPP, 1997
Volume of Active Ingredient (Billions of Pounds)
Pesticide Class (B lb.) (%) (B lb.) (%)
Herbicides 0.57 46% 2.25 40%
Insecticides 0.13 10% 1.47 26%
Fungicides 0.08 7% 0.54 9%
Other1
0.45 37% 1.42 25%
Total 1.23 100% 5.68 100%
U.S. Market World Market
1Other - Dose not cover industrial wood preservatives, specialty biocides and chlorine/hypochlorites
Agriculture Based Pesticides
US & World Use - 1997 Agriculture Based Pesticides
User Expenditures (Billions of Dollars)
Pesticide Class ($ B) (%) ($ B) (%)
Herbicides $6.85 58% $16.89 46%
Insecticides $3.55 30% $11.59 31%
Fungicides $0.80 7% $6.04 16%
Other1
$0.70 6% $2.53 7%
Total $11.90 100% $37.05 100%
U.S. Market World Market
1Other - Dose not cover industrial wood preservatives, specialty biocides and chlorine/hypochlorites
Source: EPA OPP, 1997
Pesticide Hazards
Acute exposure
Chronic exposure
Inhalation
Absorption through skin
Through food or water
How pesticides get in
Exposure levels
Central nervous system
Skin irritation
Eye irritation
Health effects (depends on specific pesticide)
Hormone imbalance
Cancer
Liver damage
Reproductive effects
Unintentional Misuse
• Results from poor knowledge of correct use of pesticides or equipment…
• Prevent through effective training, certification and supervision.
• Respond by correcting practices through prevention program.
• Report when unintentional misuse could have impacts on health, environment, food products.
Pesticides and Terrorism?
Investigations after the 9/11 attacks raised the concern
that terrorists might use crop dusters to spray pesticides on
large crowds.
Pesticides have not been used often in terrorist attacks.
Regulation of pesticides p 678
• Pesticides are carefully
regulated by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA),
which reviews studies to
determine the risks posed by
individual pesticides.
• Regulated by WHO, EPA, FDA, FAO
1947 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
Food and Drug Administration
1972 – EPA takes over FIFRA – expanded
registration and safety requirements
1996 – Food Quality Protection Act
Regulatory Status
• Focus – long-term prevention of pest
problems
• Reduce or eliminate chemical pest
control methods
• Monitor for the presence of pests before
treating
• Nonchemical strategies (make habitat
less attractive, physical controls)
• Learn about your pests
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Honey Bees - Excellent Indicator
of Environmental Pesticides Acephate
Acetamiprid
Aldicarb sulfone
Aldicarb sulfoxide
Allethrin
Amicarbazone
Amitraz (2,4-DMA)
Amitraz (2,4-DMPF)
Atrazine
Azinophos-methyl
Azoxystrobin
Bendiocarb
Bifenthrin
Boscalid
Captan
Carbaryl
Carbaryl (1-Naphthol)
Carbendazim
Carbofuran, 3-hydroxy
Carfentrazone
Chlorfenapyr
Chlorothalonil
Chlorpyrifos
Coumaphos
Coumaphos-Chlorferone
Coumaphos oxon
Cyfluthrin
Cyhalothrin (total)
Cypermethrin
Cyprodinil
Deltamethrin
Diazinon
Dicofol
Difenoconazole
Diflubenzuron
Dimethomorph
Diphenylamine
Endosulfan 1
Endosulfan 2
Endosulfan sulfate
Esfenvalerate
Etoxazole
Fenbuconazole
Fenhexamid
Fenpropathrin
Fluvalinate
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Imidacloprid
Imidacloprid olefin
Imidacloprid, 5-hydroxy
Indoxacarb
Malathion
Methidathion
Methoxyfenozide
Methyl parathion
Metolachlor
Metribuzin
Myclobutanil
Norflurazon
Oxamyl
Oxyfluorfen
p,p'-DDE
Pendimethalin
Permethrin
Phosmet
Pyraclostrobin
Pyrethrins
Pyrimethanil
Quintozene (PCNB)
Sethoxydim
Simazine
Tebuconazole
Tebufenozide
Tebuthiuron
Tetramethrin
Thiabendazole
Thiacloprid
Tribufos
Trifloxystrobin
Trifluralin
Vinclozolin
Multiresidue Pesticide Analysis on US Wax,
Pollen and Bees Samples 2007-08
• Very few samples lacked detections
• Found 121 different pesticides and metabolites
pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, neonicotinoids
insect growth regulators, organochlorines, chlorinated cyclodienes,
20 fungicides, 12 herbicides, 2 acaricides, 1 synergist,
At least 14 of these are systemic pesticides
• On average 6 different pesticides per pollen sample
- Up to 31 in a single sample
Pesticide or
Metabolite Class LOD
Samples
Analyzed
Total
Detections
% of
Samples
Mean
(ppb)
SEM
(ppb)
Lowest
Value
Highest
Value
LD50
(ppb)
Carbaryl
PS
CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500
Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300
Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860
Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280
Imidacloprid
olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280
Imidacloprid,
5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280
Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220
Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000
Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES
Pesticide or
Metabolite Class LOD
Samples
Analyzed
Total
Detections
% of
Samples
Mean
(ppb)
SEM
(ppb)
Lowest
Value
Highest
Value
LD50
(ppb)
Carbaryl
PS
CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500
Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300
Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860
Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280
Imidacloprid
olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280
Imidacloprid,
5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280
Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220
Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000
Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES
Pesticide or
Metabolite Class LOD
Samples
Analyzed
Total
Detections
% of
Samples
Mean
(ppb)
SEM
(ppb)
Lowest
Value
Highest
Value
LD50
(ppb)
Carbaryl
PS
CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500
Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300
Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860
Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280
Imidacloprid
olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280
Imidacloprid,
5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280
Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220
Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000
Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES
Pesticide or
Metabolite Class LOD
Samples
Analyzed
Total
Detections
% of
Samples
Mean
(ppb)
SEM
(ppb)
Lowest
Value
Highest
Value
LD50
(ppb)
Carbaryl
PS
CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500
Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300
Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860
Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280
Imidacloprid
olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280
Imidacloprid,
5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280
Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220
Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000
Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES
Pesticide or
Metabolite Class LOD
Samples
Analyzed
Total
Detections
% of
Samples
Mean
(ppb)
SEM
(ppb)
Lowest
Value
Highest
Value
LD50
(ppb)
Carbaryl
PS
CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500
Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300
Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860
Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280
Imidacloprid
olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280
Imidacloprid,
5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280
Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220
Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000
Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES
Outcomes of Honey Bee Pesticide Analysis
• No “commodity” has had as many detections at such high amounts in so few samples over
such a short time as has bee pollen
• Highest detections were in-house miticides, fluvalinate and coumaphos, but well over 100
other pesticides and metabolites found
• Pyrethroids dominate: known to impact foraging behavior,
• No individual chemical is likely to explain CCD
• Systemic or other fungicides occur at levels that may synergize with pyrethroids,
organophosphates or neonicotinoids.
• Role of pesticides and diseases like IAPV in CCD remains to be reconstituted in lab
bioassays at relevant doses
• Impacts of multiple pesticide residues in bee food most likely will be via synergistic
interactions at sublethal levels on key behaviors/physiology
What impact are they having?
• Toxic effect (multiple pesticides) (Sara Ashcraft)
– Synergistic insecticides + fungicides
• Behavioral effects – Learning and retention (Daniel Schmehl)
• Comparison of European and African bees
• Physiological effects – Immune system function (Diana Cox-Foster)
– Longevity
• Larval development - adult behavior and physiology
Pesticides
• Pesticides can be safe when used appropriately, but
leave residue on foods.
• When used inappropriately, they can be hazardous.
• Consumers can minimize exposure to pesticides in
foods by following specific food preparation
guidelines.
• Pesticides can improve crop yields.
• Alternative farming methods are being explored.
Pesticides
• Hazards and Regulation of Pesticides – Hazards of Pesticides
• Tolerance level set by government
• People with weakened immune systems may be vulnerable.
– Regulation of Pesticides • EPA and FDA keep within safe limits
• Enforces the law
– Pesticides from Other Countries • Policies must be established.
• Imported foods contaminated with our banned pesticides that were sold outside the U.S. (circle of poison)
Pesticides
• Monitoring Pesticides
– Food in the Fields
• Monitoring programs
• Certifications with periodic inspections
– Food on the Plate
• Survey research to determine how much is
consumed
• The Total Diet Study estimates pesticide
consumption.
Pesticides
• Consumer Concerns
– Minimizing Risks
• Trim fat and remove skin.
• Select fruits and vegetables without holes.
• Wash fresh produce with a scrub brush and rinse.
• Use a knife to peel.
• Discard outer leaves.
• Peel.
• Eat a variety of foods.
• Consider buying certified organic foods.
• Food selection/prep to decrease risk
Food Prep to Reduce Pesticides
• Trim fat, remove skin
• Wash produce
• Use a knife to peel oranges and grapefruit
• Discard outer leaves lettuce
• Peel waxed fruits and vegetables
In-text Figure
Page 673
Washing fresh fruits
and vegetables
removes most, if
not all, of the
pesticide residues
that might have
been present.
Pesticides
• Consumer Concerns
– Alternatives to Pesticides
• Natural pesticides
• Genetically altered plants; crop rotation
• Using organisms to kill pests
• Alternative farming methods
Pesticides
• Consumer Concerns
– Organically Grown Crops
• Produce and market organic crops
• USDA labeling for organic foods
– 100% organic ingredients may claim 100% organic and use
seal
– 95% organic ingredients may claim organic and use seal
– 70% organic ingredients may list up to three ingredients on the
front of the package
– Less than 70% organic ingredients may list them on the side
panel but not make claims on the front of the package
With the benefits of a safe and
abundant food supply comes the
responsibility to select, prepare, and
store foods safely.
Reduce use
Reduce Exposure
Seek alternatives Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Beware of local and global
use
Summary
Additional Information
Pesticide Action Network North America
- http://www.panna.org
Washington Toxics Coalition
- http://www.watoxics.org
Pesticide Database site
- http://www.pesticideinfo.org/
US EPA Office of Pesticides
- http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/
USGS - NAWQA Pesticide National Synthesis
Project - http://water.wr.usgs.gov/pnsp/
University of Illinois – Pesticide Impact
Assessment - http://ext.agn.uiuc.edu/piap/
What is a Food Additive?
The term ''food additive'' means any substance the
intended use of which results or may reasonably be
expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its
becoming a component or otherwise affecting the
characteristics of any food (including any substance
intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing,
processing, preparing, treating, packaging,
transporting, or holding food;….
if such substance is not Generally Recognized As Safe,
Sec. 201(s) FFDCA: Definition
21 CFR 170.3(e)(1)
What is a Food Additive?
Sec. 201(s) FFDCA: Definition
• Any substance, that is reasonably expected to become a component of food as a result of its intended use,
• If such use in not Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS)
IN SHORT
Main classes of food additives include
1. Colourings
2. Preservatives
3. Flavourings
4. Emulsifiers and stabilizers(Stabilize oil-water
mixtures like ice-cream)
5. Acids, bases and buffers(Control the pH value of
food)
6. Sweeteners(To sweeten food without using sugar)
7. Nutrients
Should additives always be avoided? Some additives make food taste better, last longer or are actually good for you. Some should be avoided and may cause allergic reactions. But some manufacturers imply that additives are bad, and that having no additives is a good thing. What do you think?
Baked beans are good for you and taste good. But take away the additive and the sauce becomes thin and watery. The additive here is cornflour or starch, a natural product that has been used to thicken sauces for years. Is this an additive you would like to see banned?
Many savoury snacks contain salt – one of the oldest additives on the planet. Some also contain monosodium glutamate or MSG. This helps us to taste flavours so gives food a stronger taste. Some people react badly to MSG. But would you ban it for everyone?
Tartrazine is a yellow colouring. It makes some types of orange squash more orange in colour. Do we need it? Look at these bottles – one with and one without. Which would you buy? And which do you think would taste better? Some people react badly to tartrazine so some manufacturers have started to replace it with turmeric.
Some additives help to stop food going off. The most commonly used preservatives include benzoic acid or citric acid. Fruit drinks, jams and marmalades, many cakes and biscuits contain preservatives. So, here’s another choice – additives or foods that will go off more quickly?
We’ve all got a very sweet tooth nowadays. The average teenager in the UK gets through 19 kg of sugar every year in foods before they add any to their tea or coffee! This adds lots of calories to our diets and is not good for your teeth. Perhaps an artificial sweetener like aspartame is actually healthier?
All the additives so far have been useful, mostly harmless to most people and can make foods look and taste better. One of the last groups of additives is actually guaranteed to make you healthier. It’s an antioxidant called … vitamin C! This is added to fruit drinks to stop oxygen in the air spoiling the flavour and colour of the drink. It does the same job in some cured meats and is added to many breakfast cereals.
Well, I will avoid some additives but most seem pretty safe to me. I would ban some but keep the others.
Additives are bad. If we concentrated on making good quality healthy food and eating local produce we wouldn’t need them. There is a risk – however small. Let’s just get rid of them all for safety’s sake.
Which of these viewpoints do you agree with? Are there any additives you would ban? And why? Or should some be made compulsory to improve our diet?
What a lot of fuss about nothing! Additives have been tested and any that are unsafe are soon banned. They keep our foods fresh, make them taste better and some even make them healthier for us! What’s there to ban?
• Many of the food additives used are
preservatives.
• Limitations
• Cannot be used:
– To disguise faulty/inferior products
– To deceive consumer
– If significantly destroy nutrients
– If effects can be achieved by sound
manufacturing
• Must have purpose
– Improve color/flavor/texture/stability
– Spoilage inhibitor
– Improve nutritional value
The FDA regulates the use of
intentional additives.
• Consumers are concerned about the incidental additives.
• Regulations Governing Additives
– The GRAS (generally recognized as safe) List • Additives that have been in use a long time
• Believed to be safe based on current scientific evidence
• Ongoing review
Regulations Governing Food
Additives
• Regulations Governing Additives
– The Delaney Clause • Additives that have not been shown to cause
cancer in animals or humans
• Criticism of being too strict and inflexible
• No more than 1 in a million risk
– Margin of Safety • Determined by experimental research
• 100 times below the lowest level that is found to cause harm
Delaney Clause
• No substance known to cause CA, at ANY
DOSE, may be added to foods
• No way to evaluate
– ? Rats vs humans
– Saccharin
– Nitrates: Preservative, anti-botulism agent;
stomach CA
GRAS List
• Generally recognized as safe
• Food additives list used long time,
believed to be safe (about 700 items)
• Re-evaluated periodically
Food Drug & Cosmetic Act
(As amended, 1958)
• Defines “food additive” w/GRAS exemption
• Requires premarket approval of new uses of food additives
• Establishes the standard of review
• Establishes the standard of safety
• Establishes formal rulemaking procedures
Sec. 409 FFDCA
• Regulations Governing Additives
– Risks versus Benefits • Use the lowest amount needed to get the effect
• Cannot disguise faulty or inferior foods
• Cannot deceive consumers
• Cannot be used where nutrients are significantly destroyed
• Cannot be used where their effects can be achieved by economical, sound manufacturing processes
• FDA regulates but manufacturers must prove:
– Effectiveness
– Measurability
– Safety
• If additive involves risk, allowed at level 100 X less than where risk is zero
– Margin of safety = 1/100
• Petitioner is responsible for demonstrating safety
• FDA is responsible for
– Conducting a full and fair evaluation of the data and information
– Issuing a regulation if FDA scientists conclude the requested use is “SAFE”
FDA Petitioner
• Mechanism: FFDCA---Sec. 409---Necessary
Tools
• Process: Safety Evaluation---Scientific review
team
• Result: Regulations, notifications, and
exemptions
Intentional Food Additives
• Intentional Food Additives
– Antimicrobial Agents
• Salt and sugar
• Nitrites and nitrates
• Nitrites can be converted to nitrosamines in the
human body.
• Discuss the advantage(s) and the disadvantage(s) of using nitrite additives.
• Advantages:
• Decreases the risk of botulin toxin formation.(botulism)
• Maintain a pink colour of meat.
• Disadvantages:
• Decreases level of haemoglobin in the blood.
• Malnutrition.
• Growth retardation./ may cause cancer.
Reproductive capacity impairment,
reduce life span
Food Additives
• Intentional Food Additives
– Antioxidants
• Vitamin C (erythorbic acid, sodium ascorbate)
• Vitamin E (tocopherol)
Food Additives
• Antioxidants – Sulfites (sulfur oxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfate,
potassium bisulfate, sodium metabisulfite, and potassium metabisulfate)
• Prevent oxidation in many processed foods
• Adverse reactions in people
• Declare on the label
• Inhibit use on raw foods
• Destroy thiamin
– BHA and BHT • Prevent rancidity in baked goods and snack foods
• Cancer link – protect in small amounts, harm in larger amounts
• Suggest the uses of sulphur dioxide as
food additives.
• Acts as a preservatives for
• dehydrated fruit and vegetables.
• wine(the fermented juice of fresh grapes)
• non-alcoholic beverage(drinkable liquid)
Food Additives
• Intentional Food Additives
– Colors
• Natural colors include annatto, caramel,
carotenoids, dehydrated beets, and grape skins.
• Artificial colors include blue #1 and #2, green #3,
red #40 and #3, yellow #5 and #6.
Food Additives
• Intentional Food Additives
– Artificial Flavors and Flavor Enhancers
• Natural flavors include spices, herbs, essential oils, fruits,
and fruit juices.
• Artificial flavors include artificial sweeteners.
• Flavor enhancers include MSG or monosodium glutamate.
– Used in Asian foods, canned vegetables, soups, and processed
meats
– MSG symptom complex has adverse reactions in some people.
– Must be listed on the label
Food Additives
• Intentional Food Additives – Texture and Stability
• Common emulsifiers – for stabilization
– Lecithin
– Alginates
– Mono- and diglycerides
• Common gums – to thicken and gel
– Agar, alginates, and carrageenan
– Guar, locust bean, and psyllium
– Pectin
– Xanthan gum
– Gum Arabic
– Cellulose derivatives
Food Additives
• Artificial colors
• Artificial flavors
• Antimicrobial agents
• Antioxidants
• Nutrient additives
Artificial Colors
• Dispensable (make food “pretty”)
– Crystal Pepsi
– 7-Up
– Red Dye # 2 = CA?
– Tartrazine (FD & C yellow # 5)
In-text Figure
Page 679
Color additives not only make foods attractive, but identify
flavors as well. Everyone agrees that yellow jellybeans
should taste lemony and black ones like licorice.
Antimicrobials
• Antimicrobial Agents
– Protects food
– Salt / sugar
• H2O removed from food
• jams, jellies, salted foods
– Nitrites
• Smoked/cured foods (nitrosamines = CA)
In-text Figure
Page 677
Both salt and sugar act as preservatives by
withdrawing water from food; microbes cannot
grow without water.
Antioxidants
• 27 antioxidants approved – Including vitamins C and E
• Sulfites – Hypersensitivity
– Can destroy thiamin in foods
– Banned in salad bars; still used in beer, wine, some processed foods
• BHA & BHT – Decrease rancidity (foods with fat)
– BHT: ? protective CA rats; high levels ? cause CA rats
Intentional Food Additives
• Intentional Food Additives
– Nutrient Additives
• Appropriate uses
– Correct dietary deficiencies
– Restore nutrients to levels prior to storage, handling, and
processing
– Balance vitamin, mineral, and protein content of a food in
proportion to its energy content
– Correct nutritional inferiority
Food Additives Nutrient Additives
– Common Nutrient Additives
• Thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, folate, and iron in grain
products
• Iodine in salt
• Vitamins A and D in milk
• Vitamin C and calcium in fruit drinks
• Vitamin B12 in vegetarian foods
Nutrient Additives
• Used to improve/maintain nutritional value
of food
• Refined:
– Usually refers to grains (white flour)
– Removal of bran and germ
• Whole Grain:
– Not refined
Nutrient Additives
• Enriched:
– Nutrients added back to refined food; usually grains; thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and iron
• Fortified:
– Nutrients added not originally in food: • Iodized salt
• Vit A and D fortified milk
• Ca fortified OJ
Nutrient Additives, continued
• Supplement:
– Nutrients added in high amounts (>50% RDI)
– Some cereals more like pills than whole
grains
Nutrient Additives
• Supplement:
– Nutrients added in high amounts (>50% RDI)
– Some cereals more like pills than whole
grains
Food Additives
• Indirect or incidental food additives enter food
through harvesting, production, processing,
storage, or packaging.
– Acrylamide
• Causes cancer and nerve damage in high doses
• Found in potatoes cooked at high temperatures (french fries
and potato chips, breakfast cereals, and cookies)
• Also classified as a genotoxicant – a substance that mutates
or damages genetic materials
Food Additives
• Indirect Food Additives
– Microwave Packaging
• Active packaging is where the packaging components
migrate into food.
• Passive packaging is where the package simply holds the
foods but components can migrate into food at high
temperatures.
• Test empty glass or ceramic containers in microwave for 1
minute:
– If warm, do not use.
– If lukewarm, it is safe for short-term heating.
– If cool, it is safe for long-term cooking.
Food Additives
• Indirect Food Additives
– Dioxins
• Chemical pollutants created as by-products of chemical
manufacturing, incineration, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp,
and other industrial processes
• Found in coffee filters, milk cartons, paper plates, and frozen
food packages in minute quantities
– Decaffeinated Coffee
• Methylene chloride found in decaffeinated coffee
• Depends on the decaffeinating process used
Food Additives
• Indirect Food Additives
– Hormones
• Bovine growth hormone (BGH) in cattle to produce
leaner meats and dairy cows to produce more milk
• All cows make this hormone naturally.
• Food levels are regulated and monitored.
• Digested by the human body
• Still controversy
Food Additives
• Indirect Food Additives
– Antibiotics
• Given to animals and residues remain in meat and
milk
• People with sensitivities may suffer allergic
reactions.
• Antibiotic resistance is a problem.
Food additives and health
• Beware of:Allergies
• Hyperactivity e.g. E102
• Long-term illness (such as cancer)
• Chinese Restaurant Syndrome
• headache, asthma , faint or even death
• MSG
• burning sensations, thirst, vomiting
1. Look at these two food labels.
Muesli Ham spread
Ingredients Ingredients
Wheat flakes, raisins, oats,
sultanas, chopped Brazil nuts,
chopped dated, chopped
apricots, fried unsweetened
bananas, roasted coconut,
preservative E250.
Ham, cured pork tongues,
preservative E250, pork, water,
liver, flour, spices, sodium
polyphosphate E450, flavour
enhancer E620, colour E102
and E128.
(a) Which of the two foods contains artificial colouring?
List all these colouring.
(b) Which additive prevents the growth of micro-organism?
Questions:
A can of fizzy drink includes the following ingredients:
carbonated water, sucrose, vitamin C, butyl butanoate,
citric acid
In the drink, vitamin C is used as an anti-oxidant.
a) Why is an anti-oxidant used?
b) Suggest another reason for including vitamin C in
the drink.
c) Name ONE other anti-oxidant that can be used.
d) Why is butyl butanoate used in the drink? (2001Q.3)
Question:
• Which of the following statements
concerning monosodium glutamate is
correct?
• It sweetens food.
• It prevents food from being oxidized.
• It emulsifies oil and water in food.
• It enhances the flavour of food.
• Which of the following substances are commonly found in canned grapefruit juice?
• citric acid. (2) benzoic acid (3) ethanoic acid
• (1) and (2) only
• (1) and (3) only
• (2) and (3) only
• (1), (2) and (3)
Consumer Concerns about
Water • Water may contain infectious
microorganisms, environmental
contaminates, pesticide residues, and
additives.
• The EPA monitors the safety of public
water systems.
• Many consumers are choosing home
water treatment systems or drinking
bottled water.
Consumer Concerns about
Water • Sources of Drinking Water (potable water)
– Surface water • Sources include lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.
• Readily contaminated through acid rain, runoff from highways and urban areas, pesticide runoff from agricultural areas, and industrial wastes
• Refreshed by fresh rain, aeration, sunlight, plants, and microorganisms
Water Supply
• Hard water:
– Rich in Calcium, Magnesium
• Soft water:
– Add sodium to extract minerals
– The harder the water initially, the more sodium is used
• Toxic heavy metals can accumulate: pipes, city sewage, industrial waste
Consumer Concerns about
Water • Sources of Drinking Water
– Ground water
• Sources include underground aquifers.
• Supplies rural areas and pumped by wells
• Contaminated more slowly but more permanently
• Especially susceptible to contamination from hazardous
waste sites, dumps, landfills, underground tanks storing
gasoline and other chemicals, and improperly discarded
household chemicals and solvents
Consumer Concerns about
Water • Water Systems and Regulations
– Home Water Treatments
• Shop carefully.
• Advantages and disadvantages
• Determine the quality of home water first.
Consumer Concerns about
Water • Water Systems and Regulations
– Bottled Water
• FDA has quality and safety standards.
• Expensive
• Water source must be identified
• Refrigerate after opening
• May contain contaminants
Food Biotechnology
• Biotechnology, with proper safeguards and
controls, provides opportunities to
overcome food shortages, improve the
environment, and eliminate disease.
Fig. H19-1a, p. 694
Traditional Selective Breeding
Traditional selective breeding combines many genes from two
varieties of the same species to produce one with the desired
characteristics.
Donor Commercial variety
+
In the new variety,
many genes have
been transferred.
=
Desired
gene
Desired
gene
Stepped Art
Fig. H19-1b, p. 694
Genetic Engineering
Through genetic engineering, a single gene (or several) are
transferred from the same or different species to produce one
with the desired characteristics.
Donor Commercial variety
+
In the new variety,
only the desired
gene is transferred.
=
Desired
gene isolated
Desired
gene
Stepped Art
In-text Figure
Page 688
Genetically modified cauliflower is orange, reflecting
a change in a single gene that increases its
production of beta-carotene 100-fold. P 694
The Promises of Genetic
Engineering • Also called genetically modified (GM) or
genetically engineered (GE) foods
• Extended Shelf Life – tomato example
• Improved Nutrient Composition – biofortification
• Efficient Food Processing – bacteria mass produce rennin for cheese making
• Efficient Drug Delivery – biopharmacy by using plants and animals to produce drugs
• Genetically Assisted Agriculture – plant pesticides grown by the plant itself
• Other Possibilities
The Potential Problems and
Concerns • Disruption of natural ecosystems
• Introduction of diseases
• Introduction of allergens and toxins
• Creation of biological weapons
• Ethical dilemmas
• Rigorous testing and labeling
FDA Regulations
• Many foods are already genetically altered through
selective breeding.
• Many foods are not substantially different.
• Foods that are substantially different require labeling
to identify that difference.
• Allergy-causing substances must be labeled.
• Can these regulations ensure an improved food
supply?