CHAPTER 16

Foreign Policy

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America’s Role in the World

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Isolationism – a belief that American should not involve itself in the quarrels of other countries, and instead should pursue a policy of military nonintervention An exception was made for WWI, after which

America withdrew from world affairs once more in a trend that lasted into the 1930s.

Internationalism – a foreign policy perspective concluding that America’s interest in peace abroad and liberty at home requires its permanent involvement in world affairs Internationalism became the dominant school of

thought after WWII. America took the lead in the formation of the United

Nations in 1945.

America’s Role in the World (continued)

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The Cold War and Post-Cold War Era Problems began during WWI.I

America worked closely with Great Britain and left the Soviet Union out during the atomic bomb project.

President Truman curtailed military supplies to the Soviets.

The Soviets contended that they were never treated as a genuine ally by the United States.

Ideological differences added to the lack of trust.

American insistence on free elections in Eastern Europe was resented by the Soviet Union.

America’s Role in the World (continued) The Truman Doctrine – a policy, proclaimed by

President Harry Truman in 1947, in which the United States would oppose the expansion of communism anywhere in the world

The Marshall Plan – began after WWII as an American program for the economic rehabilitation of Western Europe The Soviet Union responded to these two endeavors

by tightening their control over Eastern Europe. The Cold War did see real military conflict.

Korean conflict (1950-1952) The American military was deployed to the Korean

peninsula when communist forces crossed into South Korea.

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America’s Role in the World (continued)

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Vietnam conflict (1961-1973) A decade of heavy fighting resulted in a

U.S. loss of over 50,000 lives. These conflicts contributed to the

formation of two new approaches to dealing with communism known as “détente” and the Nixon Doctrine.

Détente is a French word meaning “relaxation” and applies to an approach designed to ease tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union in the early 1970s.

The Nixon Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by President Nixon in 1969 which stipulated that the United States would support its allies with economic and military aid, but that the allies should provide the bulk of the manpower for their own defense.

America’s Role in the World (continued)

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Post-Cold War America The cold war came to an end with two

events. By the end of 1989, all of the governments of

the Soviet Union’s Eastern allies had collapsed. The Warsaw Pact was in shambles and had, for all intents and purposes, ceased to exist.

Germany was reunited in the summer of 1990, and was included in the NATO alliance.

The United States is constantly redefining its role to accommodate the changing international sphere.

The Policy Machinery7

The Department of State Responsible for the routine daily functions

of foreign policy

Represents the U.S. abroad

Involved in international negotiations

Supervises foreign aid and programs

Promotes cultural and educational exchange

Makes policy recommendations to the president

The Policy Machinery (continued) Heading the department is the secretary

of state, who reports directly to the president. Beneath the secretary are the deputy

secretary of state, six undersecretaries, and a counselor. Below that level are a number of bureaus

that monitor events around the world. The U.S. Agency for International Development

coordinates economic assistance programs. The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency is

responsible for research on arms control and is often involved in the actual negotiations.

The Office of International Information Programs directs overseas information programs.

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United States Department of State

In addition to its headquarters in Washington, known as Foggy Bottom, the State Department has over 140 embassies abroad, more than 100 consulates, and 8 special missions to international organizations. Yet, as measured by its budget and personnel, it is among the smaller executive departments. Of particular importance are functional bureaus and geographic bureaus.

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The Policy Machinery (continued)

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In 1947 the National Security Act established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), responsible for gathering information and coordinating foreign intelligence operations in the federal government. During the cold war, the CIA conducted secret

political activities. The CIA aided in the installment of pro-American

governments in Iran and Guatemala. Presidents Ford and Carter set firm limits on CIA

operations by placing covert activities under close presidential control.

The dilemma of the CIA is finding a balance between the agency’s covert nature and maintaining a democratic society.

The Policy Machinery (continued)

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In 1947 the National Security Act also established the Department of Defense, responsible for formulating military policy and maintaining the armed forces. Heading the department is the secretary of defense. It is comprised of three basic organizations: the Office of

the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), and the separate armed services. The Joint Chiefs of Staff consist of a chairperson and the

heads of various branches of the military. Until recently the JCS advised the president and the secretary of defense on important military questions.

Congress plays a limited role, as well, in telling the president what the executive branch cannot do For example, Congress can limit the president’s authority to conduct arms sales). Congress cannot do more when it comes to foreign policy

because of parochialism, organizational weakness, and lack of information.

Department of Defense

The Defense Department is practically an empire unto itself. The massive Pentagon office building 34 acres and contains a work force of over 25,000 people. Approximately 2.8 million people are employed by Defense, over two-thirds of them in the armed forces. The Defense Department is divided mainly into the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the three service departments.

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Domestic Policy and National Security

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Public moods or general attitudes, rather than individual opinions on specific questions, are what really influence policy. Some examples are as follows: The Vietnam War created a split in the internationalist consensus

between liberal internationalists and conservative internationalists. In the mid-1970s, less than 50 percent of Americans approved of the

use of American troops to support allies. Seizure of American hostages in Iran and the Soviet invasion of

Afghanistan in 1979 created another shift in thinking. By 1980, a majority of Americans supported the use of troops to protect allies.

Public support never wavered during the Gulf War in 1991. American support on the war against terrorism has been mixed.

General moods are important because they can place limits on the choices available to policymakers.

Multinational Corporations and Banks

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Multination corporations are large corporations based in one country that have considerable assets and subsidiaries in other countries. This creates a dilemma in domestic policy because of economic consequences to government actions.

Corporations lobby for reduction of trade barriers to increase business.

American banks have become heavily involved in overseas activities.

Foreign loans and investments give American banks and corporations a stake in the economics of other countries.

The Military-Industrial Complex

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The military-industrial complex describes the Pentagon, defense contractors, unions in the defense industry, members of Congress whose states or districts receive considerable military funds, and academic strategists whose work is funded by the military. Critics say that the influence of the military-industrial complex

distorts our defense policy and weakens our economy. Critics say the military-industrial complex favors the

production of weapons that are too expensive and often obsolete.

Much of the blame falls on Congress, which frequently funds weapons systems regardless of their military value simply because they are produced in the districts of influential members.

Homeland Security has anticipated a need for an increase of government spending on military power.

Current Issues in Foreign and Defense Policy

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Policymakers face painful choices. They must recognize the following:

The demands of Congress and the public The concerns of our allies The unpredictable social forces in the developing

world The ever present dangers of nuclear arms and

other weapons of mass destruction

The actions of 9/11 and the war on terrorism have prompted a new era of America foreign and defense policy.

Current Issues in Foreign and Defense Policy (continued)

President George W. Bush established the National Security Strategy of the United States of America, calling for a “distinctly American internationalism that reflects the union of our values and our national interests.” The document lays out three goals:

Political and economic freedom Peaceful interstate relations Respect for human dignity

These goals the Bush administration hoped to attain through strong, worldwide military presence, the encouragement of free trade and economic development, and the transformation of national security institutions.

As a part of this plan, the president created a Department of Homeland Security.

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Current Issues in Foreign and Defense Policy (continued)

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Another current issue is the great economic disparity between wealthy countries and poor countries. Developing nations are nations whose standard of living lags far

behind that of the industrialized states. The International Monetary Fund is a specialized agency of the

United Nations designed to promote international monetary cooperation.

World Bank, another specialized agency of the United Nations, makes loans to poorer nations for the purpose of economic development.

Due to the interconnectedness of the international sphere, decisions that directly affect one nation or a group of nations are likely to have some impact on every other nation as well.

One of the challenges American foreign policy will face in the twenty-first century will be deciding which values should drive our economic relations with the rest of the world.