Chapter 15

Speaking to Persuade

 Introduction What have you done this morning?

– Did you persuade? How? Persuasive Speech: A speech designed to change

or reinforce the audience’s beliefs or actions Persuasion, as a form of communication, has been

studied for the past 2,000 years– Famous examples?

• Cuban missile crisis: Adlai Stevenson• Colin Powell?• Civil Rights: Martin Luther King

– I have taken three classes in it—I teach one; there are still things I am learning about it

Introduction (cont’d) When you speak to persuade, you act as an

advocate. Potential Goals?– Defend an idea– Refute an opponent – politics– Sell a program/product – orange clean– Inspire to action (although this will be next time)

• You will learn a systematic process in this class• The major type of persuasive speeches we will deal with

include:– Fact– Value– Policy

But first… The Psychology of Persuasion

Persuasion always occurs in a situation where two or more points of view exist– These perspectives may be polar or just

differ by degrees The difference of opinion produces the

need for persuasion– Group projects? My next EGRATS study.

The challenge of Persuasive Speaking

Persuasion is the most complex and challenging form of public speaking.– This is why you didn’t start with the persuasive speech

Topics can often be controversial– People resist messages that challenge their attitudes,

values and beliefs• Resistance can make your job more difficult• Some audiences will never agree with you, regardless of

your level of confidence, preparation and evidence

– Be realistic in your expectations• Do not expect to convince people to forgo their

previously held perspective• Set your goal to make a few people reconsider their

position• Remember that magnitude, not only valence, can be

persuasion

The challenge of Persuasive Speaking (cont’d) Audience feedback and prior analysis are

KEY– You must know where your audience stands prior

to your speech– You must pay attention to feedback during your

speech so you can adapt• EYE CONTACT IS ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY• You should have many examples in storage, in case the

audience isn’t buying an argument Above all, realize: Persuasion is all about Strategy

How Listeners process persuasive Messages Persuasion is something speakers do

with an audience– The audience won’t be actively

participating in the discussion– The audience will be actively participating

by influencing your need to clarify points

How Listeners process persuasive Messages (cont’d) Mental dialogue with the audience

– The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

– Audience assesses:• Credibility, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning,

and emotional appeals

– Mental dialogue is most “vigorous” when the topic is very relevant to the audience members

– You must anticipate audience concerns• Put yourself in their perspective• Sometimes the best strategy is to let them counter-argue for a

couple of seconds, then knowingly address that point                                                        

The Target Audience

The portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

Concentrating on a target audience does not mean that you ignore or insult the rest

Consider advertising– Some examples of ad campaigns—who do they

relate to; who is the target audience?• Beer – meta analysis and teens

– Advertising firms use the same strategies we presented in chapter 5

• Survey – this is almost a requirement• Questionnaires• Interviews

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact

What are questions of Fact?– Questions about the truth or falsity of an assertion

• Some have definite answers (Bo-ring)– Who are the two teams in the world series? How many seconds are there in an

hour?– Typically these answers can be found in reference material

• Some are more indefinite– Predictions of future trends?

» The Year 2000» Global catastrophe» Y2K computer bug» Terrorism

– Inconclusive evidence (for ideas, watch Conspiracy Theory)» Who Shot JFK?» Can spy satellites really follow my car?» Is OJ innocent?» Do UFOs exist?

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact (cont’d)

Questions of Fact only become persuasive in nature when the audience entertains serious doubts with respect to the answer

Analyzing Questions of Fact Persuasive speeches on questions of fact can

resemble informative speeches– However, informative speeches are non-partisan;

persuasive speeches you should be taking a stand (partisan)

Your goal is to present the facts as persuasively as possible– Draw a conclusion, that is supported by your facts– Consider the need for courtroom trials: you are the

lawyer in your closing argument– Organizing Speeches on Questions of Fact

Persuasive speeches on Questions of Fact are typically organized topically

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value What are questions of Value?

– Questions about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action

• Second Grade: “Whose dad is the best dad ever?”• Is the cloning of human beings morally justifiable?• What are the ethical responsibilities of journalists,

teachers or public officials?– “Heroin Town”

– Analyzing Questions of Value

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value(cont’d)– Questions of Value are not simply matters of

personal opinion• I enjoy bicycle riding (uh… good for you…)

vs.• Bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation

– Similarly, the justification for your claim• Can NOT be: because I like it (I don’t care.)• Should be: evidence

– First define “ideal form of land transportation”– Next relate the bicycle to each of the previous assertions– The evidence you provide becomes your standard by

which you measure the claim against                                                           

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value(cont’d)

Organizing Speeches on Questions of Value– Persuasive speeches on questions of

value are almost always organized topically

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

What are questions of Policy? (The best)– Questions about whether a specific course

of action should or should not be taken• Should we institute online voting as legal for all

elections?• Should commercial airline pilots be allowed to

carry a gun?• Should UConn allow students, who already are

paying tuition and fees, to park for free?

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy (cont’d)

Types of Speeches on Questions of Policy– Two potential goals: Gain passive agreement or

gain immediate action– Gain Passive Agreement (Persuasive Speech)

• Often a consideration of passive vs. active voice• A persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to

convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy

• Ex: To persuade my audience that affirmative-action programs should not be eliminated

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy (cont’d) Types of Speeches on Questions of Policy

(cont’d)– Gain Immediate Action (Motivational Speech)

• A persuasive speech in which the speaker’s goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

• Active vs. Passive voice• To persuade my audience to vote in favor of retaining

affirmative action policies• Action reinforces belief

– Research shows that people tend to forget messages after a few days

– Long term change is difficult, but made easier through action                                                          

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy (cont’d) Analyzing Questions of Policy

– Three basic issues to face in persuasion: Need, Plan, and Practicality

– Need• The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy• Is there a serious problem or need that requires a

change from current policy?– If it ain’t broke

• Burden of Proof– The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a

change from current policy is necessary

Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy (cont’d) Analyzing Questions of Policy (cont’d)

– Plan• The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy• If there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have

a plan to solve the problem?• Note: In class, you won’t have time to give a detailed discussion,

just briefly cover its main features

– Practicality• The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy• Will the speaker’s plan solve the problem?• Will it create new and more serious problems?• You must be able to demonstrate that your solution will yield a

better result than the current one

Organizing Speeches on Questions of Policy

Problem – Solution Order– Recall: The first main point deals with the existence

of a problem– Recall: The second point presents a solution

Problem – Cause – Solution Variant– First: Problem– Second: Causes of the Problem– Third: Proposed solution

Comparative Advantages Order– Each main point explains why a speaker’s solution to

a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions