CHAPTER 15 Instructionsold-classes.design4complexity.com/6715-F11/readings/… · · 2011-08-21Do...

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I nstructing others to follow some procedure is a common task onthe job. Sometimes the instructions are given orally. When the

procedure is done by many people or is done repeatedly, however,written instructions are a better choice. Instructions may be quitesimple—as in Figure 15-1—or exceedingly complex—comprising ashelfful of manuals. They may be highly technical—dealing with op-erating machinery or programming computers, for example. Orthey may be executive- or business-oriented—for example, explain-ing how to complete a form or how to route memorandums througha company. The task of writing instructions is not to be taken lightly.A Shakespearean scholar who had also served in the British Armywrote the following:

The most effective elementary training [in writing] I ever received wasnot from masters at school but in composing daily orders and instruc-tions as staff captain in charge of the administration of seventy-two

Situational Analysis for InstructionsWhat Is the Purpose of My Instructions?What Is My Reader’s Point of View?How and Where Will My Reader Use These Instructions?What Content Does My Reader Really Need and Want?How Should I Arrange My Content?

Possible Components of InstructionsIntroductionTheory or Principles of OperationList of Equipment and Materials NeededDescription of the MechanismWarningsHow-To InstructionsTips and Troubleshooting ProceduresGlossary

Accessible Format

Reader Checks

CHAPTER 15 Instructions

CONTENTS INDEX HELPCONTENTS INDEX HELP

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miscellaneous military units. It is far easier to discuss Hamlet’s complexes than towrite orders which ensure that five working parties from five different units ar-rive at the right place at the right time equipped with the proper tools for the job.One soon learns that the most seemingly simple statement can bear two mean-ings and that when instructions are misunderstood the fault usually lies with theoriginal order.1

To help you write instructions, we discuss the following in this chapter: sit-uational analysis for instructions, the possible components of instructions,creating an accessible format, and checking with your readers.

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS FOR INSTRUCTIONSIn preparing to write instructions, follow the situational analysis we describeon pages 14–19 in Chapter 2, Composing. In addition, pay particular attentionto the answers to these questions.2

What Is the Purpose of My Instructions?Be quite specific about the purpose of your instructions. Keep your purposein mind because it will guide you in choosing your content and in arrangingand formatting that content. State your purpose in writing, like this:

To instruct the plant managers, the corporate treasurer, and the plant accountantin the steps they need to follow to establish a petty cash fund.

492 PART IV APPLICATIONS


DIRECTIONS1. Clean toilet bowl thoroughly including under the rim.2. To remove product, peel backing from blister package. Do not remove wrapping around product...it dissolves.3. Remove toilet tank top. Flush toilet. Before tank refills, place product against rear right corner of tank under float. (See diagram.)4. Initial blue color will appear after several flushes.5. No removal necessary. Simply add a new 2000 FLUSHES ® Brand BLUE, when color is gone.

VALVE OPENINGPRODUCT

FLOAT

FIGURE 15-1 Simple InstructionsSource: Reprinted with permission of Block Drug Company, Inc. © Block DrugCompany, Inc., 1990.

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What Is My Reader’s Point of View?Don’t be satisfied with a general description of a reader as “the average con-sumer” or “a typical car owner.”You’ll achieve more accurate insights if you putyourself in the place of someone you know who fits that general description. Forexample, if I were my mother, what would be my point of view if I had to fol-low these instructions on how to complete this form? What questions and prob-lems might I have? In what order might these questions and problems arise? Arethere terms and concepts involved that I might not understand? What infor-mation do I really need? What information would be irrelevant? And so forth.

How and Where Will My ReaderUse These Instructions?Will your reader read your instructions carefully from beginning to end? Evi-dence indicates that he or she will not.3 Readers most often scan instructionsand then begin reading carefully at those points where they need clarification.In other words, typically, they read them as a reference work rather than asan essay or a novel. Where will my reader use these instructions? In a com-fortable, well-lighted workshop, well stocked with tools? In a cold, drafty, ill-lighted garage with only those tools hastily grabbed from the workshop? In thecockpit of a boat under emergency conditions, reading by a flashlight? Stand-ing in line in a government office? The answers to such questions will help youorganize and format your instructions.

What Content Does My ReaderReally Need and Want?Understanding your purpose and your reader’s point of view is essential for an-swering this question. You can include many kinds of information in a set of in-structions: theory, descriptions of mechanisms, troubleshooting advice, and soforth. We discuss such information in the next section, Possible Components ofInstructions. You should include everything that is really relevant and nothingthat is not relevant. If your reader is someone who has a need or a desire for the-ory, then furnish it. If theory is not needed or desired, furnishing it would bewasted effort for all concerned. Unneeded material is worse than irrelevant. Itmay obscure the relevant information so that the reader has difficulty finding it.

How Should I Arrange My Content?Answers to all the previous questions aid you in arrangement decisions. If agood deal of theory is important and needed, your arrangement should prob-ably include a separate section for it. If only brief explanations of theory are

CHAPTER 15 INSTRUCTIONS 493


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needed for the reader to understand a few steps in the instructions, place theexplanations with the steps. For example, you might put the whys and where-fores of using a carpenter’s level at that point in the instructions that describeshow to use the level.

In order to arrange the actual instructions on how to perform a process, youmust, of course, understand the process fully. If you can perform the process,taking notes as you go, do so. If that is not possible or convenient, at least an-alyze the process in your mind. Break it into its major steps and substeps. Bealert for potential trouble spots for your reader.

POSSIBLE COMPONENTS OF INSTRUCTIONSSets of instructions may contain as many as eight components:

• Introduction

• Theory or Principles of Operation

• List of Equipment and Materials Needed

• Description of the Mechanism

• Warnings

• How-To Instructions

• Tips and Troubleshooting Procedures

• Glossary

We do not present this list as a rigid format. For example, you may find thatyou do not need a theory section, or you may include it as part of your intro-duction. You may want to vary the order of the sections. You may want to de-scribe or list equipment as the reader needs it while performing the processrather than in a separate section. Often nothing more is needed than the how-to instructions.We describe the components of instructions primarily as a guideto your discovery of the material you will need.

IntroductionNormally, introductions to instructions state the purpose of the instructionsand preview the contents. Frequently, they provide motivation for reading andfollowing the instructions. They may also directly or indirectly indicate whothe intended readers are. The following, from a publication concerning cho-lesterol, does all these things:

High blood cholesterol is a serious problem. Along with high blood pressure andcigarette smoking, it is one of the three major modifiable risk factors for coronary



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heart disease. Approximately 25 percent of the adult population 20 years of ageand older has “high” blood cholesterol levels—levels that are high enough to needintensive medical attention. More than half of all adult Americans have a bloodcholesterol level that is higher than “desirable.”

Because high blood cholesterol is a risk to your health, you need to take stepsto lower your blood cholesterol level. The best way to do this is to make sure youeat foods that are low in saturated fat and cholesterol. The purpose of this brochureis to help you learn how to choose these foods. The brochure will also introduceyou to key concepts about blood cholesterol and its relationship to your diet. Forexample, it includes basic (but very important) information about saturated fat—the dietary component most responsible for raising blood cholesterol—and aboutdietary cholesterol—the cholesterol contained in food.

This brochure is divided in three parts. The first part of the brochure givesbackground information about high blood cholesterol and its relationship toheart disease. The second part introduces key points on diet changes and betterfood choices to lower blood cholesterol levels.

Finally, in the third part more specific instructions are given for modifyingeating patterns to lower your blood cholesterol, choosing low-saturated fat andlow-cholesterol foods, and preparing low-fat dishes.

The “Glossary” provides easy definitions of new or unfamiliar terms. The ap-pendices that follow the Glossary list the saturated fat and cholesterol content ofa variety of foods.4

This introduction begins with motivation, stating that high blood choles-terol is a serious problem and providing support for that statement. The audi-ence for the brochure, adult Americans, is indicated in an indirect manner. Thepurpose is clearly stated:“The purpose of this brochure is to help you learn howto choose these foods [that are low in saturated fat and dietary cholesterol].”Following the statements of motivation and purpose, the introduction pre-views what is to come in the rest of the brochure and refers to the glossary.

Introductions to instructions, then, are often not much different from theintroductions we describe for you in Chapter 9, Design Elements of Reports.Short sets of instructions, however, may have very abbreviated introductionsor, in some cases, no introduction at all. On the other hand, when introductionsare longer than the one we have shown you, it’s usually because the writershave chosen to include theory or principles of operation in the introduction.This is an accepted practice. We tell you how to give such information in thenext section.

Theory or Principles of OperationMany sets of instructions contain a section that deals with the theory or prin-ciples of operation that underlie the procedures explained. Sometimes histor-ical background is also included. These sections may be called “Theory” or



Intended audience

Motivation

Purpose ofinstructions

Preview ofcontents

Reference toglossary

“Principles of Operation,” or they may have substantive titles such as “ColorDos and Don’ts,”“Purpose and Use of Conditioners,” or “Basic Forage BlowerOperation.” Information about theory may be presented for several reasons.Some people have a natural curiosity about the principles behind a proce-dure. Others may need to know the purpose and use of the procedure. Thegood TV repair technician wants to know why turning the vertical controlknob steadies the picture. Understanding the purposes behind simple ad-justments enables the technician to investigate complex problems. What ifnothing happens when the vertical control knob is turned? The technicianwith a theoretical background will know more readily where to look in theTV set to find a malfunction.

Sections on theory or principles can be quite simple. The following ex-cerpt comes from a set of instructions on how to reduce radon levels in ahouse. The excerpt, labeled “How Radon Enters Your House,” presents somebasic theory about radon in easy-to-understand language:

Radon is a naturally occurring gas produced by the breakdown of uranium in soil,rock, and water. Air pressure inside your house is usually lower than pressure inthe soil around your house’s foundation. Because of this difference in pressure,your house acts like a vacuum, drawing radon in through foundation cracks andother openings. Radon may also be present in well water and can be released intothe air in your house when water is used for showering and other household uses.In most cases radon entering the house through water is a small risk compared toradon entering your house from soil. In a small number of houses, the buildingmaterials can give off radon, although building materials rarely cause radon prob-lems by themselves.5

As simple as this excerpt is, it provides the background needed to understandthe techniques for radon reduction.

Theory sections can be more complex. Figure 15-2 presents a portion ofthe theory section from the cholesterol brochure. It describes the relationshipbetween cholesterol and atherosclerosis—that is, hardening of the arteries.Understanding the theory helps readers understand the guidelines for choles-terol levels set out in the rest of the section and motivates them to follow theguidelines. The entire section is written on a very personal level: What doesthis theory mean for the reader? Through the use of a simple format, graph-ics, questions, and plain language, the writers of the brochure make the theoryquite accessible for the intended audience.

The theory section shown in Figure 15-2 uses some unfamiliar terms, suchas atherosclerosis, which are defined in the glossary mentioned in the lastparagraph of the introduction. However, the authors would have done theirreaders a kindness by mentioning the glossary again the first time it is needed



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FIGURE 15-2 Theory SectionSource: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Eating to Lower Your BloodCholesterol (Washington, DC: GPO, 1989) 2–3.

What You Need to Know AboutHigh Blood Cholesterol

There are important reasons for you to be concernedabout your blood cholesterol level. Over time, cholesterol,fat, and other substances can build up in the walls of yourarteries (a process called atherosclerosis) and can slow orblock the flow of blood to your heart. Among many things,blood carries a constant supply of oxygen to the heart.Without oxygen, heart muscle weakens, resulting in chestpain, heart attacks, or even death. However, for manypeople there are no warning symptoms or signs untillate in the disease process.

Heart disease is the leading cause of death in thiscountry. Scientists have known for a long time that highblood cholesterol, high blood pressure, and smoking allincrease the risk of heart disease.

Research now shows that the risk of developingatherosclerosis or coronary heart disease also increasesas the blood cholesterol level increases. And it has nowbeen proven that lowering high blood cholesterol, likecontrolling high blood pressure and avoiding smoking,will reduce this risk.

The medical community recently set guidelines forclassifying blood cholesterol levels. They advise that atotal cholesterol level less than 200 mg/dl is “desirable”for adults—above 200 mg/dl the risk of coronary heartdisease steadily increases. The classifications of total bloodcholesterol in the following chart are related to the riskof developing heart disease.

Normal Artery Wall

Normal OpenChannel forArterial Blood

AbnormalNarrowedChannel forArterial Blood

Artery WallThickened byFatty Deposits

Why Should YouKnow Your BloodCholesterolLevel?

How High Is YourBlood CholesterolLevel?



FIGURE 15-2 (continued)

Does Your Total Blood Cholesterol Level Increase YourRisk for Developing Coronary Heart Disease?

If your total cholesterol level is in the range of 200–239mg/dl, you are classified as having “borderline high”blood cholesterol and are at increased risk for coronaryheart disease compared to those with lower levels.However, if you have no other factors that increase yourrisk for coronary heart disease,* you should not needintensive medical attention. But you should make dietarychanges to lower your level and thus reduce your risk ofcoronary heart disease.

On the other hand, if you have borderline-high bloodcholesterol and have coronary heart disease or two otherrisk factors for coronary heart disease, you need specialmedical attention. In fact, you should be treated in thesame way as people with “high” blood cholesterol—240mg/dl or greater—who could be at high risk for developingcoronary heart disease and warrant more detailedevaluation and medical treatment.

Additional evaluation helps your physician determinemore accurately your risk of coronary heart disease andmake decisions about your treatment. Specifically, yourdoctor will probably want to measure your low densitylipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol level—since LDL-cholesterolmore accurately reflects your risk for coronary heartdisease than a total cholesterol level alone. LDL-cholesterollevels of 130 mg/dl or greater increase your risk fordeveloping coronary heart disease. After evaluating yourLDL-cholesterol level and other risk factors for coronaryheart disease, your physician will determine yourtreatment program.

Remember: As your cholesterol level rises, your risk ofdeveloping coronary heart disease increases.

*Risk factors for coronary heart disease include high bloodpressure, cigarette smoking, family history of coronary heart diseasebefore the age of 55, diabetes, vascular disease, obesity, and beingmale.

DesirableBlood Cholesterol

Borderline-HighBlood Cholesterol

HighBlood Cholesterol

Less than 200 mg/dl 200-239 mg/dl 240 mg/dl and above

and giving its page numbers. Remember our advice on pages 69–72 aboutdirecting your readers. Locating a glossary for them is a good example ofsuch direction.

As our two excerpts illustrate, many diverse items of information can beplaced in a theory or principles section. Remember, however, that the majorpurpose of the section is to emphasize the principles that underlie the actionslater described in the how-to instructions. In this section, you’re telling yourreaders why. Later, you’ll tell them how. Theory is important, but don’t get car-ried away with it. Experts in a process sometimes develop this section at toogreat a length, burying their readers under information the readers don’t needand obscuring more important information that they do need. Make this sec-tion, if you include it at all, only as full and as complex as your analysis of pur-pose and readers demands.

List of Equipment and Materials NeededIn a list of equipment and materials, you tell your readers what they will needto accomplish the process. A simple example would be the list of cooking uten-sils and ingredients that precedes a recipe. Sometimes, if the process is straight-forward or the audience is knowledgeable, the list of equipment is not used.Instead, the instructions tell the readers what equipment they need as they needit: “Take a rubber mallet and tap the hubcap to be sure it’s secure.”

When a list is used, frequently, each item is simply listed by name. Some-times, however, your audience analysis may indicate that more information isneeded. You may want, for instance, to define and describe the tools andequipment needed, as shown in Figure 15-3. If you think your readers are re-ally unfamiliar with the tools or equipment being used, you may even give in-struction in its use, as in Figure 15-4. If the equipment cannot be obtainedeasily, you’ll do your readers a service by telling them where they can find thehard-to-get items. As always, your audience analysis determines the amountand kind of information presented.

Description of the MechanismInstructions devoted to the operation and maintenance of a specific mecha-nism usually include a section describing the mechanism. Similarly, if a mech-anism is central in some process, it is frequently described. In such sections,follow the principles for technical description given on pages 132–135. Breakthe mechanism into its component parts, and describe how they function.



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FIGURE 15-3 List of ToolsSource: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Simple Home Repairs: Outside (Washington, DC:GPO, 1986) 4.



FIGURE 15-4 Instruction in Equipment UseSource: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Simple Home Repairs: Inside (Washington, DC: GPO,1986) 5.

For example, springs can be developed as domestic water supplies throughthe use of a mechanism called a spring encasement. The following description,accompanied by the drawing in Figure 15-5, breaks a spring encasement intoits component parts, describes the function of each part, suggests materials forthe parts, and shows how the parts work together:

Spring encasements have six major components:

1. A system of perforated pipes to collect the water. Polyvinylchloride and cast-iron are common choices for all needed pipes.

2. A tank of reinforced concrete to store the collected water.






ELEVATION

SurfaceWaterDiversionDitch

ScreenedDrain

Valve & Box

Cleanout Drain

Fence

Overflow

To Storage

Perforatedpipe

PLAN

Clay

Maximum Water Level

Water-Bearing Gravel

Fence

OverflowLock

Surface WaterDiversion Ditch

10' Min

Cleanout Drain

Water Stop

Steps

ScreenedDrain

PerforatedPipe

ToStorage

Valve &Box

2" Min

FIGURE 15-5 Spring EncasementSource: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Individual and Non-PublicWater Supply Systems (Washington, DC: GPO, 1991) 70.

3. A heavy, cast-iron cover with lock to keep surface drainage and debris out ofthe storage tank.

4. A drain to clean out and empty the storage tank.5. A pipe to allow for overflow.6. A connection to the distribution system.

When spring encasements are built on a slope, upslope from the collectionsystem they should also have a surface-water diversion ditch and a cutoff wall ofimpermeable clay to control the water table around the tank.6

Mechanism descriptions are generally accompanied by numerous illus-trations like those in Figures 15-5, 15-6, and 15-7 (page 506). Such illustra-tions show only necessary detail and, to be effective, normally have to be wellannotated. Some, like Figure 15-7, are exploded views. We hasten to add thatin this context exploded means that the mechanism is drawn in such a waythat its component parts are separated and thus easier to identify. Figure 15-7 makes the concept clear.

WarningsWe live in an age of litigation. People who hurt themselves or damage theirequipment when following instructions in the use of that equipment fre-quently sue for damages. If they can prove to a court’s satisfaction that theywere not sufficiently warned of the dangers involved, they will collect largesums of money. Because of this, warnings have become an increasingly im-portant part of instructions.

How seriously do corporations take this need to warn people of possibledangers? We recently saw a shoe box that contained boating shoes. The boxwas decorated with an oceanographic chart. On the side of the box was a warn-ing stating that, “this chart is not intended to be used as a navigational aid andis not reliable for that purpose.”7 Figure 15-8 (page 507) shows that somethingas simple to operate as an electric can opener comes with a set of warnings.

If they are extensive enough, the warnings may be put into a separate sec-tion, as they are in Figure 15-8. But often they are embedded in the how-to in-structions. In either case, be sure they are prominently displayed in somemanner that makes them obvious to the reader. You may surround them withboxes, print them in type different from and larger than the surrounding text,print them in a striking color, or mark them with a symbol of some sort. Fre-quently, you will use some combination of these devices.

Not only must you make the warnings stand out typographically, youmust use language and, when appropriate, graphics that make the nature,severity, and consequences of the hazards involved absolutely clear. You must



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RemovableRoof/Walls

ReinforcedConcrete

Ventilation

SanitaryWell Seal

Insulation

Pressure Tank

Pump Unit

ProtectiveCasing

Siding

Grout Seal

Packer Expanded

Casing Shoe

Well Screen

Closed Bail Bottom

Water Bearing Sand or Gravel

Well Casing

Sheathing

Shingles &Sheathing

Studs

Frost Line

Surface Soil

ClayTo House

Control Box

Rafters

AutomaticChlorinator

Heat Lamp

ChlorineSolution

Min 4"

FIGURE 15-6 PumphouseSource: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Individual andNon-Public Water Supply Systems (Washington, DC: GPO, 1991) 121.

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clearly state how to avoid the hazards. Any lack of clarity can result in a pre-ventable accident, almost certainly followed by a costly lawsuit against youremployer or your client.8

No terminology is completely agreed upon for warnings. However, threelevels of warning have been widely accepted, designated by the words caution,warning, and danger.9



FIGURE 15-7 Exploded View of Submersible PumpSource: United States Environmental Protection Agency,Manual of Individual and Non-Public Water Supply Systems(Washington, DC: GPO, 1991) 101.

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Caution Use the word caution to alert the reader that not following the in-structions exactly may lead to a wrong or inappropriate result. A caution isused when no danger to people or equipment is involved. Figure 15-9 showshow a caution might be used to advise a technician to follow the steps of a pro-cedure in proper order. Sometimes, note is used for this level of warning.



SAVE THESE INSTRUCTIONS

IMPORTANT SAFEGUARDSWhen using electrical appliances, basic safety

precautions should always be followed, including thefollowing:

1. Read all instructions.

2. To protect against risk of electrical shock, do notput power unit in water or other liquid.

3. Close supervision is necessary when anyappliance is used by or near children.

4. Unplug from outlet when not in use, beforeputting on or taking off parts, and before cleaning.

5. Avoid contacting moving parts.

6. Do not operate any appliance with a damagedcord or plug or after the appliance malfunctions,or is dropped or damaged in any manner. Returnappliance to the nearest authorized service facilityfor examination, repair or electrical or mechanicaladjustment.

7. The use of attachments not recommended or soldby the appliance manufacturer may cause fire,electric shock or injury.

8. Do not use outdoors.

9. Do not let cord hang over edge of table orcounter, or touch hot surfaces.

10. Do not open pressurized (aerosol-type) cans orcans of flammable liquids, such as lighter fluids.

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FIGURE 15-9 A Caution Message

Check Valve Test

• Place the mouthpiece shut-off valve in the Diving position.• Place the mouthpiece in your mouth, squeeze the inhalation hose closed,

and attempt to inhale through the mouthpiece. If it is possible to inhale withthe inhalation hose closed off, the check valve is missing or defective.

CAUTION

If the mouthpiece shut-off valve is in theOpen position, the test will incorrectlyindicate a defective or missing check valve.

FIGURE 15-10 A Warning Message

WARNING

• Do not use force to open or close the disk tray. Force mayresult in a damaged tray.

• Place nothing but a compact disk in the tray. Inserting objectsother than disks in the tray may result in a damaged tray.

FIGURE 15-11 A Danger Message

DANGER

• Use no oil.• Oil coming in contact with a high-pressure connection in diving

equipment may result in an explosion.• To prevent serious injury or death, use no oil.

Warning Use the word warning to alert the reader to faulty procedures thatmight cause minor-to-moderate personal injury or damage to equipment, asin the warning from a compact disc player manual shown in Figure 15-10. Theexclamation point inside the triangle in Figure 15-10 is a commonly acceptedsymbol, used to attract the reader’s attention and to stress the importance ofthe message. You will see it used on all three levels of warnings.

Danger Use the word danger for the highest level of warning: a warning to pre-vent major personal injury or death. Obviously, you must make danger mes-sages stand out typographically and write them with utter clarity. Figure 15-11presents a good example.

How-To InstructionsThe actual instructions on how to carry out the procedure or operate themechanism obviously lie at the heart of any set of instructions. The same gen-eral principles apply to all how-to instructions.

Style When writing how-to instructions, one of your major goals is to use aclear, understandable style. To write your instructions from the reader’s pointof view, use the active voice and imperative mood. The imperative mood isnormal and acceptable in instructions. It’s clear and precise and will not of-fend the reader. The instructions in Figure 15-12 (page 510) illustrate the style.

By using the format shown in Figure 15-13 (page 511), you can use theimperative mood even when several people with distinct tasks have to carryout the procedure. In the format shown, the headings in the left-hand columnidentify the responsible actor, allowing the imperative mood to be used in theright-hand column. It’s an efficient system. (For more on the active voice andimperative mood, see pages 137–138.)

Most sets of how-to instructions use a list format. The list may use num-bers, bullets (•), or simply white space to keep each step distinct. Each step usu-ally contains only one instruction and, at the most, two or three closely relatedinstructions. Besides keeping each step distinct from other steps, listing hasseveral other advantages as well.

• It makes it obvious how many steps there are.

• It makes it easy for readers to find their place on the page.

• It allows the reader to use the how-to instructions as a checklist.

Use familiar, direct language, and avoid jargon. Tell your readers to checkthings or to look them over. Don’t tell them to conduct an investigation. Tell yourreaders to use a wrench, not to utilize one. Fill your instructions with readily



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recognized verbs such as adjust, attach, bend, cap, center, close, drain, install, lock,replace, spin, turn, and wrap. For more on good style, see Chapter 5, Achievinga Readable Style.

If your how-to instructions call for calculations, include sample calcula-tions to clarify them for the reader. As in this example:

For a pesticide that is diluted with water, proportionally change the quantity ofpesticide, the quantity of water, and the area, volume, or number of items treated.For example, one-half pound of pesticide in 1 gallon of water applied to 1,000square feet is equivalent to 1 pound of pesticide in 2 gallons of water applied to2,000 square feet.10

To further help readers with their calculations, the author provides the tablereproduced in Figure 15-14 (page 512).

Graphics Be generous with graphics. Word descriptions and graphics oftencomplement each other. The words tell what action is to be done. The graph-ics show where it is to be done, and they often also show how. Our samples



FIGURE 15-12 Imperative Mood InstructionsSource: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Individual and Non-PublicWater Supply Systems (Washington, DC: GPO, 1991) 55–56.

Dug Wells. The disinfection procedure for dug wells is as follows:

1. After completing the casing or lining, follow the procedure outlined below before placing thecover platform over the well.a. Remove all equipment and materials, including tools, forms, platforms, etc.,

that will not be a permanent part of the completed structure.b. Using a stiff broom or brush, wash the interior wall of the casing or lining

with a strong solution (100 mg/L of chlorine) to insure thorough cleaning.2. Place the cover over the well and pour the required amount of chlorine solution as described

above into the well through the manhole or pipe sleeve opening just before inserting the pumpcylinder and drop-pipe assembly. Distribute the chlorine solution over as much surface areaas possible to get the best distribution of the chemical in the water. Running the solution intothe well through the water hose or pipeline while the line is being raised and lowered willinsure better distribution.

3. Wash the exterior surface of the pump cylinder and drop pipe with the chlorine solution asthe assembly is being lowered into the well.

4. After the pump is positioned, pump water from the well until a strong odor of chlorine is noted.5. Allow the chlorine solution to remain in the well at least 24 hours.6. After 24 hours or more have elapsed, flush the well to remove all traces of chlorine.



FIGURE 15-13 Standard Operating ProceduresSource: Reprinted by permission of Deluxe Check Printers, Inc.

STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURESProcedure C-9

Establishing, Changing, or Eliminating the Petty Cash FundAccounts Payable and Purchasing Manual—C

SUMMARY: The petty cash fund is a fixed cash fund reserved for minor expenditures of $50or less. This procedure explains how to establish, change, or eliminate the pettycash fund.

NOTE: When a petty cash fund is established, the plant manager should assignresponsibility to no more than two cash drawer custodians, with one individualhaving primary responsibility. The accounts payable clerk must not be a custodianof the petty cash fund.

See Procedure C-17 to disburse petty cash. See Procedure C-18 to replenish thepetty cash fund. See Appendix J for petty cash fund controls.

RESPONSIBILITY ACTION

Plant manager 1. Request authorization from corporate treasurer for one of thefollowing:

• establish petty cash fund• change amount of existing petty cash fund• eliminate existing petty cash fund

Corporate treasurer 2. Review request and approve or disapprove and notify plantaccountant of decision.

Plant accountant 3. Notify plant manager of decision.

4. If establishing fund or increasing existing fund, have checkprepared from Account 1030 (Regular Cash Account) forauthorized amount, payable to cash, debiting Account 1010(Petty Cash Account) on check voucher.

4a. Place check in check cashing fund box and withdrawauthorized amount of cash.

4b. Place cash in petty cash fund, and notify plant manager thatpetty cash fund is established or increased.

–OTHERWISE–

5. If decreasing or eliminating existing fund, use Daily Report ofCash, form A-30-Q (Exhibit 24), to credit Account 1010.

Rewritten by: Kathy Huebsch

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demonstrate well the relationship between words and graphics. Note that graph-ics are often annotated to allow for easy reference to them. As Figure 15-15demonstrates, graphics can be used to show the worker—or at least the worker’shands—actually performing the job.

Arrangement When writing performance instructions, arrange the processbeing described into as many major routines and subroutines as needed. Forexample, a set of instructions for the overhaul and repair of a piece of ma-chinery might be broken down as follows:

• Disassembly of major components

• Disassembly of components

• Cleaning

• Inspection

• Lubrication

• Repair

• Reassembly of components

• Testing of components

• Reassembly of major components

Notice that in this case the steps are in chronological order. Our samples alsodemonstrate chronological order.



FIGURE 15-14 Table to Assist CalculationsSource: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Citizen’s Guide to Pesticides (Washing-ton, DC: GPO, 1991) 8.

Pesticide Label Says Mix Amount of Pesticide Per

Amount Pesticide Per 1 qt. Water 1 pt. Water

8 units 1 gal. water EQUALS 2 units 1 unit16 units 1 gal. water EQUALS 4 units 2 units32 units 1 gal. water EQUALS 8 units 4 units

128 units 1 gal. water EQUALS 32 units 16 units

Pesticide Label Says Apply Amount of Pesticide Per

Amount Pesticide Per 20,000 sq. ft. 10,000 sq. ft. 500 sq. ft.

1 unit 1,000 sq. ft. EQUALS 20 units 10 units fi unit2 units 1,000 sq. ft. EQUALS 40 units 20 units 1 unit5 units 1,000 sq. ft. EQUALS 100 units 50 units 2fi units

10 units 1,000 sq. ft. EQUALS 200 units 100 units 5 units



FIGURE 15-15 How-To Instructions: Home RepairSource: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Simple Home Repairs: Inside (Washington, DC: GPO,1989) 3–4.

If steps are repeated, it’s sometimes a legitimate practice to tell the readerto “repeat steps 2, 3, and 4.” But whether you do so depends on your analysisof the reader’s situation. Visualize your reader. Maybe he or she will be perchedatop a shaky ladder, your instructions in one hand, a tool in the other. Undersuch circumstances, the reader will not want to be flipping pages around tofind the instructions that need to be repeated. You will be wiser and kinderto print, once again, all the instructions of the sequence. But, if the reader willbe working in a comfortable place with both feet on the ground, you will prob-ably be safe enough saying, “Repeat steps . . . .”

Such reader and situation analysis can help you make many similar deci-sions. Suppose, for example, that your readers are not expert technicians, and theprocess you are describing calls for them to use simple test equipment. In sucha situation, you should include the instructions for operating the test equipmentas part of the routine you’re describing. On the other hand, suppose your read-ers are experienced technicians following your instructions at a comfortableworkbench, with a well-stocked library of manuals nearby. Then you can assumethat they know how to operate any needed test equipment, or you can referthem to another manual that describes how to operate the test equipment.

The instructions in Figure 15-15 have a conclusion of sorts, labeled “YourReward.” For the most part, though, instructions have no conclusions. Theysimply end with the last instruction. On occasion, particularly when writingfor lay people, you might wish to close with a summary of the chief steps ofthe process or, perhaps, a graceful close (see page 262). However, such endingsare not general practice.

Tips and Troubleshooting ProceduresMany sets of instructions contain sections that either give the reader helpfultips on how to do a better job or provide guidance when trouble occurs.

Tips You may present tips in a separate section, as illustrated in Figure 15-16.Or, just as likely, you may incorporate them into the how-to instructions, as inthe following excerpt on setting flexible tile. In the excerpt, the last sentencesin instructions 1, 2, 3, and 5 give the reader tips that should make the tasks gomore easily:

1. Remove loose or damaged tile. A warm iron will help soften the adhesive.2. Scrape off the old adhesive from the floor or wall. Also from the tile if you’re

to use it again.3. Fit tiles carefully. Some tile can be cut with a knife or shears, others with a

saw. Tile is less apt to break if it’s warm.



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FIGURE 15-16 TipsSource: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Eating to Lower Your Cholesterol(Washington, DC: GPO, 1989) 23–24.

New Ways to Make Sauces, including gravies and homemade pasta sauces, and many soups oftenSauces and Soups can be prepared with much less fat. Before thickening a sauce or serving soup, let

the stock or liquid cool—preferably in the refrigerator. The fat will rise to the topand it can easily be skimmed off. Treat canned broth-type soups the same way.

For sauces that call for sour cream, substitute plain low-fat yogurt. To preventthe yogurt from separating, mix 1 tablespoon of cornstarch with 1 tablespoon ofyogurt and mix that into the rest of the yogurt. Stir over medium heat just untilthe yogurt thickens. Serve immediately. Also, whenever you make creamed soupor white sauces, use skim or 1% milk instead of 2% or whole milk.

New Ways to Use There are dozens of cookbooks and recipe booklets that will help you with Old Recipes low-fat cooking. But there is no reason to stop using your own favorite cookbook.

The following list summarizes many of the tips. Using them, you can change triedand true recipes to low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol recipes. In some cases,especially with baked products, the quality or texture may change. For example,using vegetable oil instead of shortening in cakes that require creaming will affectthe result. Use margarine instead; oil is best used only in recipes calling formelted butter. Substituting yogurt for sour cream sometimes affects the taste ofthe product. Experiment! Find the recipes that work best with these substitutions.

Instead of Use1 tablespoon butter 1 tablespoon margarine or

3_4 tablespoon oil

1 cup shortening2_3 cup vegetable oil

1 whole egg 2 egg whites1 cup sour cream 1 cup yogurt (plus 1 tablespoon

cornstarch for some recipes)1 cup whole milk 1 cup skim milk

Low-Fat Cooking Your kitchen is now stocked with great tasting, low-saturated fat, low-cholesterolTips foods. But you may still be faced with the temptation to fix your favorite higher

fat meats, rich soups, and baked breads and cookies. The suggestions below willhelp you to reduce the amount of total and saturated fats in these foods.

New Ways to When you prepare meats, poultry, and fish, remove as much saturated fat as Prepare Meat, possible. Trim the visible fat from meat. Remove the skin and fat from the Poultry, Fish, chicken, turkey, and other poultry. And, if you buy tuna or other fish that is and Shellfish packed in oil, rinse it in a strainer before making tuna salad or a casserole, or

buy it packed in water.Changes in your cooking style can also help you remove fat. Rather than

frying meats, poultry, fish, and shellfish, try broiling, roasting, poaching, or baking.Broiling browns meats without adding fat. When you roast, place the meat on arack so that the fat can drip away.

Finally, if you baste your roast use fat-free ingredients such as wine, tomatojuice, or lemon juice instead of the fatty drippings. If you baste turkeys andchickens with fat, use vegetable oil or margarine instead of the traditional butteror lard. Self-basting turkeys can be high in saturated fat—read the label!

4. Spread adhesive on the floor or wall with a paint brush or putty knife.

5. Wait until adhesive begins to set before placing the tile. Press tile on firmly.A rolling pin works well.11

Troubleshooting Procedures You may incorporate troubleshooting proce-dures into your how-to instructions, as in this excerpt:

Tighten screws in the hinges. If screws are not holding, replace them one at a timewith a longer screw. Or insert a matchstick in the hole and put the old screw back.12

Perhaps more often, troubleshooting procedures will be in a section oftheir own, as in Figures 15-17 and 15-18 (page 518). Both figures illustrate atypical format, a three-column chart with headings such as “Problem,”“Possi-ble Cause,” and “Possible Remedy.” Notice that the chart in Figure 15-17 usesgraphics to illustrate the problem, an excellent technique you should usewhere possible. Notice also that in both figures the remedies are given as in-structions in the active voice, imperative mood. The example in Figure 15-18also gives page references when appropriate to guide the reader to additionalinformation—another excellent idea.

GlossaryIf your audience analysis tells you that your reader will not comprehend all theterminology you plan to use in your instructions, you’ll need to provide defi-nitions. If you need only a few definitions, you can define terms as you usethem. You can even provide graphic definitions, as in the definition of the un-derwriters’ knot in Figure 15-15.

If you must provide many definitions, you’ll probably want to provide aglossary as a separate section. See pages 126–130, where we discuss definitions,and page 247, where we discuss glossaries.

ACCESSIBLE FORMATYour major goal in setting up your format in instructions should be to makethe information accessible for your readers. The chapters in Part III, Docu-ment Design, are especially helpful in this regard.

The theory section shown in Figure 15-2 demonstrates excellent accessi-bility. The type is large and readable, and the format is especially helpful forthose readers who may scan the document. The headings standing apart tothe left of the print allow the reader to scan quickly, looking for points of in-terest. Also, headings phrased as questions are more likely to arrest the atten-tion of scanning readers and draw them into reading the text. Curiosity is putto work—they may want to know the answers to the questions.



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FIGURE 15-18 Troubleshooting ChartSource: Reprinted by permission of Deere and Company.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMPROBLEM

Battery will not charge

“CHG” indicator glowswith engine running

POSSIBLE CAUSE

Loose or corrodedconnections

Sulfated or worn-outbattery

Loose or defectivealternator belt

Low engine speed

Defective battery

Defective alternator

POSSIBLE REMEDY

Clean and tightenconnections

Check electrolyte leveland specific gravity

Adjust belt tension orreplace belt

Increase speed

Check electrolyte leveland specific gravity

Have your John Deeredealer check alternator

PAGEREFERENCE

66

67

52

67

FIGURE 15-17 Troubleshooting ChartSource: Reprinted by permission of Deere and Company.

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In Figure 15-2, the graphic of the narrowed artery and the table showingcholesterol levels highlight the two key points in the section. The scanningreader who stops only long enough to absorb the information in the twographics will at least learn the principal danger of high cholesterol and what adesirable cholesterol level is.

Look now at Figure 15-19 (pages 520–521), a government document in-tended to instruct readers in how to file a form to establish their relationshipwith alien relatives who may wish to immigrate to the United States. The doc-ument is an example of inaccessible format: Both the headings and the printare small. The page is cluttered and intimidating. The headings are not wordedin a way that leads readers to the information they seek. Terms such as Eligi-bility, Documents previously submitted, and Documents in general are probablymeaningful to the person who wrote them but not to the typical reader ofthese instructions. The format violates most of the principles discussed inChapter 8, Document Design. Furthermore, the style of the instructions vio-lates most of the principles discussed in Chapter 5, Achieving a Readable Style.

Now look at Figure 15-20 (pages 522–523), which is the same documentafter it has been revised and given a new format to make it accessible. Certainthings are immediately obvious. The print is bigger, and there is more whitespace. The headings are more meaningful and informative. They are phrasedfrom the reader’s point of view and are stated as questions that someone ap-proaching this process might reasonably ask: “Who can file?” and “For whomcan you file?” have replaced “Eligibility.” Such new headings lead and informreaders rather than confusing them. The format and style of the instructionsare now readable, showing a knowledge and application of the principles dis-cussed in Chapters 5 and 8. The result is a readable document.

Finally, when a set of instructions runs more than several pages, youshould furnish a table of contents (TOC) to help your readers find their wayand to provide an overview of the instructions. The headings in the TOCshould duplicate those in the instructions. (See pages 241–244.)

READER CHECKSWhen you’re writing instructions, check frequently with the people who aregoing to use them. Bring them a sample of your theory section and discuss itwith them. See if they understand it. Does it contain too much theory, or toolittle? Submit your how-to instructions to the acid test. Let members of the au-dience for whom the instructions are intended—but who are not familiar withthe process—attempt to perform the process by following your instructions.Encourage them to tell you where your instructions are confusing. A procedurecalled protocol analysis can be a help at this point. In protocol analysis, you askthe person following your instructions to speak into a tape recorder, giving hisor her observations about the instructions while attempting to follow them.



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FIGURE 15-19 Government Instructions before Revision

U.S. Department of Justice PETITION TO CLASSIFY STATUS OF ALIEN RELATIVEImmigration and Naturalization Service FOR ISSUANCE OF IMMIGRANT VISA

READ INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY, FEE WILL NOT BE REFUNDED.Not all of these instructions relate to the type of case which concerns you. Please read carefully those which do relate. Failure to follow instructionsmay require return of your petition and delay final action.

1. Eligibility. A petition may be filed by a citizen or a lawful per-manent resident of the United States to classify the status ofalien relatives as follows:

a. By citizen of the United States: Except as noted in paragraph2, a citizen of the United States may submit a petition onbehalf of a spouse or sons and daughters (regardless of ageor marital status). A United States citizen at least 21 years ofage may submit a petition for a parent, brother, or sister. Ifthe petition is for a son or daughter who is married or at least21 years of age, or both, or for a brother or sister, do notsubmit petitions for the beneficiary’s spouse or unmarriedchildren under 21 years of age. If the petition is approved,the beneficiary’s spouse and unmarried children under 21years of age, if accompanying or following to join him/her,will automatically be eligible for the same preference status.

b. By a lawful permanent resident alien: Except as noted inparagraph 2, an alien lawfully admitted to the United Statesfor permanent residence may submit a petition on behalf ofa spouse or an unmarried child regardless of age. However,if a lawful permanent resident alien is married to a citizen andwishes to petition for an unmarried child, such alien shouldconsult the nearest office of the Immigration and Naturali-zation Service for advice as to whether it would be prefer-able, or necessary, for the United States citizen spouse tosubmit the petition instead. If the petition is for an unmarriedson or daughter, do not submit petitions for the beneficiary’sunmarried children under 21 years of age. If the petition isapproved, the beneficiary’s unmarried children under 21years of age, if accompanying or following to join him/her,will automatically be eligible for the preference status.

2. Petitions which cannot be approved. Approval cannot be givento a petition on behalf of—

a. A parent, brother, or sister, unless the petitioner is a UnitedStates citizen and at least 21 years of age.

b. An adoptive parent, unless the relationship to the UnitedStates citizen petitioner exists by virtue of an adoption whichtook place while the child was under the age of 16, and thechild has thereafter been in the legal custody of, and hasresided with, the adopting parent or parents for at least 2years. While the legal custody must be after the adoption,residence occurring prior to the adoption can satisfy theresidence requirement.

c. A stepparent, unless the marriage creating the status ofstepparent occurred before the citizen stepchild reached theage of 18 years.

d. An adopted child, unless the child was adopted while underthe age of 16 and has thereafter been in the legal custody of,and has resided with, the adopting parent or parents for atleast 2 years. While the legal custody may be after theadoption, residence occurring prior to the adoption cansatisfy the residence requirement.

e. A stepchild, unless the child was under the age of 18 years atthe time the marriage creating the status of stepchild occurred.

f. A wife or husband by reason of any marriage ceremonywhere the contracting parties thereto were not physicallypresent in the presence of each other, unless the marriageshall have been consummated.

g. A grandparent, grandchild, nephew, niece, uncle, aunt, cousin,or in-law.

3. Supporting documents. The following documents must be sub-mitted with the petition:

a. To prove United States citizenship of petitioner (where peti-tion is for relative of a citizen).

(1) If you are a citizen by reason of birth in the United States,submit your birth certificate. If your birth certificate isunobtainable, see “Secondary Evidence” below forsubmission of document in place of birth certificate.

(2) If you were born outside the United States and became acitizen through the naturalization or citizenship of a parentor husband, and have not been issued a certificate ofcitizenship in your own name, submit evidence of thecitizenship and marriage of such parent or husband, aswell as termination of any prior marriages. Also, if youclaim citizenship through a parent, submit your birthcertificate and a separate statement showing the date,port, and means of all your arrivals and departures intoand out of the United States. (Do not make or submit aphotostat of a certificate of citizenship.)

(3) If your naturalization occurred within 90 days immedi-ately preceding the filing of this petition, or if it occurredprior to September 27, 1906, the naturalization certifi-cate must accompany the petition. Do not make or sub-mit a photostat of such certificate.

b. To prove family relationship between petitioner and beneficiary.

(1) If petition is submitted on behalf of a wife or husband,it must be accompanied by a certificate of marriage tothe beneficiary and proof of legal termination of allprevious marriages of both wife and husband.

(2) If a petition is submitted by a mother on behalf of a child(regardless of age), the birth certificate of the child, show-ing the name of the mother, must accompany the petition.If the petition is submitted by a father or stepparent onbehalf of a child (regardless of age), certificate of marriageof the parents, proof of termination of their prior mar-riages, and birth certificate of the child, showing the namesof the parents thereon, must accompany the petition.

(3) If petition is submitted on behalf of a brother or sister,your own birth certificate and the birth certificate of thebeneficiary, showing a common mother, must accompanythe petition. If the petition is on behalf of a brother orsister having a common father and different mothers,marriage certificate of your parents, and proof of termina-tion of their prior marriages must accompany the petition.

(4) If petition is submitted on behalf of a mother, your ownbirth certificate, showing the name of your mother, mustaccompany the petition. If petition is submitted on behalfof a father or stepparent, your own birth certificate, show-ing the names of the parents thereon, and marriagecertificate of your parents must accompany the petition,as well as proof of termination of prior marriages of yourparents.

(5) If either the petitioner or the beneficiary is a marriedwoman, marriage certificate(s) must accompany thepetition. However, when the relationship between thepetitioner and beneficiary is that of a mother and child(regardless of age), the mother’s marriage certificateneed not be submitted if the mother’s present marriedname appears on the birth certificate of the child.

(6) If the petitioner and the beneficiary are related to eachother by adoption, a certified copy of the adoption decreemust accompany the petition.




c. Secondary evidence.If it is not possible to obtain any one of the required docu-ments or records shown above, the following may be sub-mitted for consideration:

(1) Baptismal certificate.—A certificate under the seal of thechurch where the baptism occurred within two months after birth, showing date and place of the child’s birth,date of baptism, and the names of the child’s parents.

(2) School record.—A letter from the school authoritieshaving jurisdiction over school attended (preferably thefirst school), showing the date of admission to theschool, child’s date of birth or age at that time, place ofbirth, and the names and places of birth of parents, ifshown in the school records.

(3) Census Record.—State or federal census record showingthe name(s) and places(s) of birth, and date(s) of birthor age(s) of the person(s) listed.

(4) Affidavits.—Written statements sworn to or affirmed bytwo persons who were living at the time, and who havepersonal knowledge, of the event you are trying toprove—for example, the date and place of birth,marriage, or death. The persons making the affidavitsmay be relatives and need not be citizens of the UnitedStates. Each affidavit should contain the followinginformation regarding the person making the affidavit:his/her full name and address; date and place of birth;relationship to you, if any; full information concerningthe event; and complete details concerning how he/sheacquired knowledge of the event.

d. Documents and secondary evidence unavailable.

If you are unable to submit required evidence of birth, death,marriage, divorce or adoption because the event took placein a foreign country which does not record such events, andsecondary evidence is unavailable, attach a statement to thiseffect, setting forth the date and place of each of your entriesinto the United States. Also attach any letters, photographs,remittances, or similar documents which tend to support theclaimed relationship and three passport type photographs ofyourself.

e. Documents previously submitted.

If your birth abroad, or the birth abroad of any personthrough whom citizenship is claimed by you, was registeredwith an American consul, submit with this petition anyregistration form that was issued. If any required documentswere submitted to an retained by the American consul inconnection with such registration, or in connection with theissuance of a United States passport or in any other officialmatter, and you wish to use such documents in support ofthis petition instead of submitting duplicate copies, merelylist such documents in an attachment to this petition andshow the location of the consulate. If you wish to makesimilar use of required documents contained in anyImmigration and Naturalization Service file, list them in anattachment to this petition and identify the file by name andnumber. Otherwise, the documents required in support ofthis petition must be submitted.

f. Documents in general.

All supporting documents must be submitted in the original.If you desire to have the original returned to you, and ifcopies are by law permitted to be made, you may submitphotostatic or typewritten copies. Photostatic copiesunaccompanied by the original may be accepted if the copybears a certification by an immigration or consular officerthat the copy was compared with the original and found tobe identical. Any document in a foreign language must beaccompanied by a translation in English. The translator mustcertify that he is competent to translate and that thetranslation is accurate. (Do not make a copy of a certificateof naturalization or citizenship.)

4. Preparation of petition. A separate petition for each beneficiarymust be typewritten or printed legibly with pen and ink.

(If you need more space to answer fully any questions on thisform, use a separate sheet(s), identify each answer with thenumber of the corresponding question, and date and sign eachsheet.) Be sure this petition and attached Form I-130A arelegible.

5. Submission of petition. If you are residing in the United States,send the completed petition to the Office of the Immigrationand Naturalization Service having jurisdiction over your place ofresidence. If you are residing outside the United States consultthe nearest American consulate as to the consular office orforeign officer of the Service designated to act on your petition.If you are a United States citizen petitioning for an immediaterelative classification in behalf of your unmarried child, thepetition must be submitted in sufficient time for action to becompleted on the petition and for the child to obtain a visa andreach the United States before the date on which he/she will be21 years of age.

6. Approval of petition. Upon approval of a petition filed by aUnited States citizen for his/her alien spouse, unmarried minorchild, or parent, an immigrant visa may be issued to the alienwithout regard to the annual limitation on immigrant visaissuance. In the cases of all other aliens for whom immigrantvisa petitions are approved, an immigrant visa number will berequired. Availability of an immigrant visa number depends onthe volume of demand by aliens in the same visa classificationwho have an earlier priority date on the visa waiting list.

7. Fee. A fee of thirty-five dollars ($35) must be paid for filing thispetition. It cannot be refunded regardless of the action taken onthe petition. DO NOT MAIL CASH. ALL FEES MUST BE SUBMITTEDIN THE EXACT AMOUNT. Payment by check or money order mustbe drawn on a bank or other institution located in the Unitedstates and be payable in United States currency. If petitionerresides in Guam, check or money order must be payable to the“Treasurer, Guam.” If petitioner resides in the Virgin Islands, checkor money order must be payable to the “Commissioner ofFinance of the Virgin Islands.” All other petitioners must make thecheck or money order payable to the “Immigration andNaturalization Service.” When check is drawn on an account of aperson other than the petitioner, the name of the petitioner mustbe entered on the face of the check. If petition is submitted fromoutside the United States, remittance may be made by bankinternational money order or foreign draft drawn on a financialinstitution in the United States and payable to the “Immigrationand Naturalization Service” in United States currency. Personalchecks are accepted subject to collectibility. An uncollectiblecheck will render the petition and any document issued pursuantthereto invalid. A charge of $5.00 will be imposed if a check inpayment of a fee is not honored by the bank on which it is drawn.

8. Penalties. Severe penalties are provided by law for knowinglyand willfully falsifying or concealing a material fact or using anyfalse document in the submission of this petition.

9. Authority. The authority for collecting the information requiredon this form is contained in 8 U.S.C. 1154(a). Submission of theinformation solicited is voluntary. The principal purpose forwhich the information is solicited is to determine the eligibilityof the beneficiary for the benefits sought. The informationsolicited may also, as a matter of routine use, be disclosed toother federal, state, local, and foreign law enforcement andregulatory agencies, the Department of Defense including anycomponent thereof (if either the beneficiary or petition hasserved, or is serving in the Armed Forces of the United states),the Department of State, Central Intelligence Agency, Interpol,and individuals and organizations, during the course ofinvestigation to elicit further information required by this Serviceto carry out its functions. Failure to provide any or all of thesolicited information may result in the denial of the petition.



FIGURE 15-20 Government Instructions after Revision

U.S. Department of JusticeImmigration and Naturalization Service (INS) Petition For Alien Relative

InstructionsRead the instructions carefully. If you do not follow the instructions, we may have to return your petition, which may delayfinal action.

1. Who can file?

A citizen or lawful permanent resident of the United States can file this form to establish the relationship of certain alien relatives who may wish to immigrate to the United States. You must file a separate form for each eligible relative.

2. For whom can you file?

A. If you are a citizen, you may file this form for:

1) your husband, wife, or unmarried child under 21 yearsold

2) your unmarried child over 21, or married child ofany age

3) your brother or sister if you are at least 21 years old4) your parent if you are at least 21 years old

B. If you are a lawful permanent resident you may file thisform for:

1) your husband or wife2) your unmarried child

NOTE: If your relative qualifies under instruction A(2) or A(3)above, separate petitions are not required for his or herhusband or wife or unmarried children under 21 yearsold. If your relative qualifies under instruction B(2)above, separate petitions are not required for his or herunmarried children under 21 years old. These personswill be able to apply for the same type of immigrantvisa as your relative.

3. For whom can you not file?

You cannot file for people in these four categories.

A. An adoptive parent or adopted child, if the adoption tookplace after the child became 16 years old, or if the child hasnot been in the legal custody of the parent(s) for at leasttwo years after the date of the adoption, or has not livedwith the parent(s) for at least two years, either before orafter the adoption.

B. A stepparent or stepchild, if the marriage that creating thisrelationship took place after the child became 18 years old.

C. A husband or wife, if you were not both physically presentat the marriage ceremony, and the marriage was notconsummated.

D. A grandparent, grandchild, nephew, niece, uncle, aunt,cousin, or in-law.

4. What documents do you need?

You must give INS certain documents with this form to showyou are eligible to file. You must also give INS certaindocuments to prove the family relationship between you andyour relative.

A. For each document needed, give INS the original and onecopy. However, because it is against the law to copy aCertificate of Naturalization, a Certificate of Citizenship or anAlien Registration receipt Card (Form I-151 or I-551), giveINS the original only. Originals will be returned to you.

B. If you do not wish to give INS the original document, youmay give INS a copy. The copy must be certified by

1) an INS or U.S. consular officer, or2) an attorney admitted to practice law in the United

States, or3) an INS accredited representative(INS still may require originals)

C. Documents in a foreign language must be accompanied bya complete English translation. The translator must certifythat the translation is accurate and that he or she iscompetent to translate.

5. What documents do you need to show you are a UnitedStates citizen?

A. If you were born in the United States, give INS your birthcertificate.

B. If you were naturalized, give INS your original Certificate ofNaturalization.

C. If you were born outside the United states, and you are aU.S. citizen through your parents, give INS1) your original Certificate of Citizenship, or2) your Form FS-240 (Report of Birth Abroad of a United

States Citizen)D. In place of any of the above, you may give INS your valid

unexpired U.S. passport that was initially issued for at least5 years

E. If you do not have any of the above and were born in theUnited States, see the instructions under 8, below. “What ifa document is not available?”

6. What documents do you need to show you are apermanent resident?

You must give INS your alien registration receipt card (FormI-151 or I-551). Do not give INS a photocopy of the card.

7. What documents do you need to prove family relationship?

You have to prove that there is a family relationship betweenyour relative and yourself.

In any case where a marriage certificate is required, if eitherthe husband or wife was married before you must give INSdocuments to show that all previous marriages were legallyended. In cases where the names shown on the supportingdocuments have changed, give INS legal documents to showhow the name change occurred (for example, a marriagecertificate, adoption decree, court order, etc.).

Find the paragraph in the following list that applies to therelative you are filing for.

If you are filing for your

A. husband or wife, give INS

1) your marriage certificate.2) a color photo of you and one of your husband or wife,

taken within 30 days of the date of this petition.




These photos must have a white background. They mustbe glossy, un-retouched, and not mounted. The dimen-sion of the facial image should be about 1 inch fromchin to top of hair in fl frontal view, showing the rightside of the face with the right ear visible. Using pencil orfelt pen, lightly print name (and Alien RegistrationNumber, if known) on the back of each photograph.

3) a completed and signed Form G-325A (Biographic Infor-mation) for you and one for your husband or wife. Except for name and signature, you do not have to repeat on the G-325A the information given on your I-130 petition.

B. child and you are the mother, give the child’s birthcertificate showing your name and the name of your child.

C. child and you are the father or stepparent, give the child’sbirth certificate showing both parents’ names and yourmarriage certificate.

D. brother or sister, give your birth certificate and the birthcertificate of your brother or sister showing both parents’names. If you do not have the same mother, you must alsogive the marriage certificates of your father to both mothers.

E. mother, give your birth certificate showing your name andthe name of your mother.

F. father, give your birth certificate showing the names of bothparents and your parents’ marriage certificate.

G. stepparent, give your birth certificate showing the names ofboth natural parents and the marriage certificate of yourparent to your stepparent.

H. adoptive parent or adopted child, give a certified copy ofthe adoption decree and a statement showing the datesand places you have lived together.

8. What if a document is not available?If the documents needed above are not available, you can giveINS the following instead. (INS may require a statement fromthe appropriate civil authority certifying that the neededdocument is not available.)A. Church record: A certificate under the seal of the church

where the baptism, dedication, or comparable rite occurredtwo months after birth, showing date and place of thechild’s birth, date of the religious ceremony, and the namesof the child’s parents.

B. School record: A letter from the school authorities of theschool attended (preferably the first school), showing thedate of admission to the school, child’s date and place ofbirth, and the names and places of birth of parents, ifshown in the school records.

C. Census record: State or federal census record showing thename, place of birth, and date of birth or the age of theperson listed.

D. Affidavits: Written statements sworn to or affirmed by two persons who were living at the time and who have personal knowledge of the event you are trying to prove; for example, the date and place of birth, marriage, or death. The persons making the affidavits need not be citizens of the United States. Each affidavit should contain the following informa-tion regarding the person making the affidavit: his or her full name, address, date and place of birth; and his or her relationship to you, if any; full information concerning the event; and complete details concerning how the person acquired knowledge of the event.

9. How should you prepare this form?A. Type or print legibly in ink.

B. If you need extra space to complete any item, attach acontinuation sheet, indicate the item number, and dateand sign each sheet.

C. Answer all questions fully and accurately. If any item doesnot apply, please write “N/A.”

10. Where should you file this form?

A. If you live in the United States, send or take the form tothe INS office that has jurisdiction over where you live.

B. If you live outside the United States, contact the nearestAmerican Consulate to find out where to send or take thecompleted form.

11. What is the fee?

You must pay $35.00 to file this form. The fee will not berefunded, whether the petition is approved or not. DO NOTMAIL CASH. All checks or money orders, whether U.S. orforeign, must be payable in U.S. currency at a financialinstitution in the United States. When a check is drawn on theaccount of a person other than yourself, write your name onthe face of the check. If the check is not honored, INS willcharge you $5.00.

Pay by check or money order in the exact amount. Make thecheck or money order payable to “Immigration andNaturalization Service.” However,

A. if you live in Guam: Make the check or money orderpayable to “Treasurer, Guam”, or

B. if you live in the U.S. Virgin islands: Make the check ormoney order payable to “Commissioner of Finance of theVirgin Islands.”

12. When will a visa become available?

When a petition is approved for the husband, wife, parent, orunmarried minor child of a United States citizen, these relativesdo not have to wait for a visa number, as they are not subjectto the immigrant visa limit. However, for a child to qualify forthis category, all processing must be completed and the childmust enter the United States before his or her 21st birthday.

For all other alien relatives there are only a limited number ofimmigrant visas each year. The visas are given out in the orderin which INS receives properly filed petitions. To be consideredproperly filed, a petition must be completed accurately andsigned, the required documents must be attached, and the feemust be paid.

For a monthly update on dates for which immigrant visas areavailable, you may call (202) 632-2919.

13. What are the penalties for submitting false information?

Title 18, United States Code, Section 1001 states that whoeverwillfully and knowingly falsifies a material fact, makes a falsestatement, or makes use of a false document will be fined upto $10,000 or imprisoned up to five years or both.

14. What is our authority for collecting this information?

We request the information on this form to carry out the immi-gration laws contained in Title 8, United States Code, Section1154(a). We need this information to determine whether aperson is eligible for immigration benefits. The information youprovide may also be disclosed to other federal, state, local, andforeign law enforcement and regulatory agencies during thecourse of the investigation required by this Service. You do nothave to give this information. However, if you refuse to givesome or all of it, your petition may be denied.

It is not possible to cover all the conditions for eligibility or to give instructions for every situation. If you have carefully readall the instructions and still have questions, please contact your nearest INS office.

Here is an excerpt from a set of such observations made by someone trying to usea computer manual and on-line help to aid him in a word processing exercise:

Somehow I’ve got the caps locked in here. I can’t get to the lower case. OK, I’mstruggling with trying to come off those capitals. I’m not having any luck. So, whatdo I need to do? I could press help. See if that gets me anything. Using the key-board. I’ll try that. 2.0. I can’t do that because it’s in this mode. I’m getting uppercase on the numbers, so I can’t type in the help numbers. So I’ll reset to get rid ofthat. Big problem. Try reset. Merging text, formatting, setting margins, fixingproblems. I can’t enter a section number because I can’t get this thing off lock. Es-cape. Nothing helps. Well, I’m having trouble here.13

Such information pinpoints troublesome areas in instructions. If you were writ-ing instructions that were to be used by many people, it would be a worthwhileinvestment of time and money to conduct a protocol analysis. In any case,whether you use protocol analysis or not, if your readers can’t follow your in-structions, don’t blame them. Rather, examine your instructions to see where youhave failed. Often, you will find you have left out some vital link in the processor assumed knowledge on the part of your readers that they do not possess.

You will find the planning and revision checklists that follow Chapter 2, Composing, and Chap-ter 4, Writing for Your Readers, valuable in planning and revising any presentation of technicalinformation. The following questions specifically apply to instructions. They summarize the keypoints in this chapter and provide a checklist for planning and revising.

Planning• What is the purpose of your instructions?• What is your reader’s point of view?• How and where will your readers use these instructions?• What content does your reader really need and want?• How should you arrange your content? Which of the following components should you

include as a separate section? Which should you omit or include within another compo-nent (for example, theory in the introduction)?

IntroductionTheory or principles of operation: How much theory do your readers really need or want?List of equipment and materials needed: Are your readers familiar with all the needed

equipment and material? Do they need additional information?Description of the mechanism: Does some mechanism play a significant role in these

instructions?



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Warnings: Are there expected outcomes that will be affected by improper procedure?Are there places in the instructions where improper procedure will cause damageto equipment or injury or death to people?

How-to instructions: Can your instructions be divided into routines and subrou-tines? What is the proper sequence of events for your how-to instructions?

Tips and troubleshooting procedures: Are there helpful hints you can pass on to thereader? What troubles may come up? How can they be corrected?

Glossary: Do you have to define enough terms to justify a glossary?• What graphics will help your instructions? Do you have them available, or can you pro-

duce them?

Revision• Have you made the purpose of your instructions clear to your readers?• Can your readers scan your instructions easily and find what they need?• Do you have sufficient headings? Do your headings stand out? Are they meaningful to

your readers? Would it help to cast some as questions?• Is all terminology that may be unfamiliar to the reader defined somewhere?• Is your print size large enough for your readers to read comfortably, given their likely location?• Is all your content relevant? Do your readers need or want it? Have you made it easy for

your readers to scan and to skip parts not relevant to them?• Have you covered any needed theory adequately?• Do your readers know what equipment and material they will need? Do they know how

to use the equipment needed? If not, have you provided necessary explanations?• Have you provided any necessary descriptions of mechanisms?• Are your caution, warning, and danger messages easy to see and clear in their meaning?

Are you sure you have alerted your readers to every situation in which they might injurethemselves or damage their equipment?

• Have you broken your how-to instructions into as many routines and subroutines asnecessary?

• Are your steps in chronological order, with no steps out of sequence?• Are your how-to instructions written in the active voice, imperative mood?• Have you used a list format, with short entries for each step of the instructions?• Have you used simple, direct language and avoided jargon?• If necessary, have you provided sample calculations?• Have you used graphics whenever they would be helpful? Are they sufficiently annotated?• Have you provided tips that may help your readers to do the task more efficiently?• Have you anticipated trouble and provided troubleshooting procedures?• If troubleshooting procedures appear in a separate section, is the section laid out in a way

that clearly distinguishes problem, cause, and remedy?• Do you have enough definitions to warrant a glossary?• Are your instructions long enough to warrant a table of contents?



• Have you checked with your readers? Have you asked a typical reader to attempt to carryout the procedure using your instructions? Have you corrected any difficulties that sucha check revealed?

• Have you checked thoroughly for all misspellings and mechanical errors?

1. Writing instructions offers a wide range of possible papers. Short papers mightconsist of nothing more than an introduction and a set of how-to instructions.Examples—good and bad—of such short instructions can be found in hobbykits and accompanying such things as toys, tents, and furniture that must beput together. Textbook laboratory procedures frequently exemplify short setsof instructions. Using the Planning and Revision Checklists for this chapter,write a short set of instructions. Here are some possible subjects:

• Developing film• Drawing a blood sample• Applying fertilizer• Setting a bicycle gear• Completing a form• Accomplishing some do-it-yourself task around a house• Replacing a part in an automobile or some other mechanism• Cleaning a carpet• Balancing a checkbook

2. Using the Planning and Revision Checklists for this chapter, write a set of in-structions that includes at least six of the eight possible components listed onpage 494. The components do not have to be in separate sections, but theymust be clearly recognizable for what they are. Here are some suggested topics:

• Testing electronic equipment• Writing (or following) a computer program• Setting up an accounting procedure for a small business• Conducting an agronomy field test• Checking blood pressure• Painting an automobile

3. The instructions for emergency disinfection in Figure 15-21 are usable intheir current form, but they could be greatly improved. In a collaborativegroup, examine and discuss the instructions. Using the Revision Checklist forthis chapter, decide on ways to improve them. At the end of the discussion,each member of the group should individually prepare a revision. Providesome typographical variation to make the instructions more accessible.



E X E R C I S E S



FIGURE 15-21 Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Manual of Individual and Non-PublicWater Supply Systems (Washington, DC: GPO, 1991) 173–74.

Emergency Disinfection

When ground water is not available and surface water must be used, avoidsources containing floating material or water with a dark color or an odor.The water tankfrom a surface source should be taken from a point upstream from any inhabited areaand dipped, if possible, from below the surface.

When the home water supply system is interrupted by natural or other forms ofdisaster, limited amounts of water may be obtained by draining the hot water tank ormelting ice cubes.

In case of a nuclear attack, surface water should not be used for domesticpurposes unless it is first found to be free from excessive radioactive fallout. The usualemergency treatment procedures do not remove such substances. Competentradiological monitoring services as may be available in local areas should be reliedupon for this information.

There are two general methods by which small quantities of water can beeffectively disinfected. One method is by boiling. It is the most positive method by whichwater can be made bacterially safe to drink. Another method is chemical treatment. Ifapplied with care, certain chemicals will make most waters free of harmful or pathogenicorganisms.

When emergency disinfection is necessary, the physical condition of the watermust be considered. The degree of disinfection will be reduced in water that is turbid.Turbid or colored water should be filtered through clean cloths or allowed to settle, andthe clean water drawn off before disinfection. Water prepared for disinfection should bestored only in clean, tightly covered, noncorrodible containers.

METHODS OF EMERGENCY DISINFECTION1. Boiling. Vigorous boiling for one minute will kill any disease-causing

microorganisms present in water. The flat taste of boiled water can beimproved by pouring it back and forth from one container into another,by allowing it to stand for a few hours, or by adding a small pinch of saltfor each quart of water boiled.

2. Chemical Treatment. When boiling is not practical, chemical disinfectionshould be used. The two chemicals commonly used are chlorine andiodine.

a. Chlorine(1) Chlorine Bleach. Common household bleach contains a

chlorine compound that will disinfect water. The procedureto be followed is usually written on the label. When thenecessary procedure is not given, one should find thepercentage of available chlorine on the label and use theinformation in the following tabulation as a guide:

Available chlorine1 Drops per quart ofclear water2

1% 10

4–6% 2

7–10% 1

1If strength is unknown, add 10 drops per quart of water.2Double amount for turbid or colored water.




The treated water should be mixed thoroughly and allowedto stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slightchlorine odor; if not, repeat the dosage and allow the waterto stand for an additional 15 minutes. If the treated waterhas too strong a chlorine taste, it can be made morepalatable by allowing the water to stand exposed to the airfor a few hours or by pouring it from one clean container toanother several times.

(2) Granular Calcium Hypochlorite. Add and dissolve one heap-ing teaspoon of high-test granular calcium hypochlorite(approximately 1/4 ounce) for each 2 gallons of water.This mixture will produce a stock chlorine solution ofapproximately 500 mg/L, since the calcium hypochloritehas an available chlorine equal to 70 percent of its weight.To disinfect water, add the chlorine solution in the ratio ofone part of chlorine solution to each 100 parts of water tobe treated. This is roughly equal to adding 1 pint (16 oz.)of stock chlorine solution to each 12.5 gallons of water tobe disinfected.To remove any objectionable chlorine odor,aerate the water as described above.

(3) Chlorine Tablets. Chlorine tablets containing the necessarydosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchasedin a commercially prepared form. These tablets areavailable from drug and sporting goods stores and shouldbe used as stated in the instructions.When instructions arenot available, use one tablet for each quart of water to bepurified.

b. Iodine(1) Tincture of Iodine. Common household iodine from the

medicine chest or first aid package may be used todisinfect water. Add five drops of 2 percent United StatesPharmacopeia (U.S.P.) tincture of iodine to each quart ofclear water. For turbid water add ten drops and let thesolution stand for at least 30 minutes.

(2) Iodine Tablets. Commercially prepared iodine tabletscontaining the necessary dosage for drinking waterdisinfection can be purchased at drug and sporting goodsstores. They should be used as stated in the instructions.When instructions are not available, use one tablet for eachquart of water to be purified.

Water to be used for drinking, cooking, making any prepared drink, or brushingthe teeth should be properly disinfected.

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