Chapter 15 – Software Reuse Chapter 15 Software reuse117/11/2014.
Chapter 15
description
Transcript of Chapter 15
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Chapter 15
Just-In-Time and Just-In-Time and Lean ProductionLean Production
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Producing only what is needed, Producing only what is needed, when it is neededwhen it is needed
A philosophy A philosophy An integrated management systemAn integrated management systemJIT’s mandate: JIT’s mandate:
Eliminate all wasteEliminate all waste
What is JIT ?
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....
Lean Operations:Best Implementation is Toyota Production System
• TPS is a production management system that aims for the “ideal” through continuous improvement
• Includes, but goes way beyond JIT. Pillars:– Synchronization
• Reduce transfer batch sizes• Level load production• Pull production control systems (vs. push): Kanban• Quality at source• Layout: Cellular operations
– Continuous Improvement (Kaizen): through visibility & empowerment
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Basic Elements of JIT
1.1. Flexible resourcesFlexible resources2.2. Cellular layoutsCellular layouts3.3. Pull production systemPull production system4.4. Kanban production controlKanban production control5.5. Small-lot productionSmall-lot production6.6. Quick setupsQuick setups7.7. Uniform production levelsUniform production levels8.8. Quality at the sourceQuality at the source9.9. Total productive maintenanceTotal productive maintenance10.10. Supplier networksSupplier networks
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Toyota’s waste elimination in Operations
1. Overproduction
2. Waiting
3. Inessential handling
4. Non-value adding processing
5. Inventory in excess of immediate needs
6. Inessential motion
7. Correction necessitated by defects
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Other Important Points
• Only make what you need
• only buy what you need,when you need it
• SMED – single minute exchange of dies
• continuous process improvement
• as the level of the water lowers, new problems or inefficiencies are identified
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Waste in Operations
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Waste in Operations
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Waste in Operations
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Flexible Resources
Multifunctional workersMultifunctional workersGeneral purpose machinesGeneral purpose machinesStudy operators & improve Study operators & improve
operationsoperations
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Cellular Layouts
Group dissimilar machines in Group dissimilar machines in manufacturing cell to produce manufacturing cell to produce family of partsfamily of parts
Work flows in one direction Work flows in one direction through cellthrough cell
Cycle time adjusted by changing Cycle time adjusted by changing worker pathsworker paths
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The Push System
• Pre-planned issues of supplies/merchandise regardless of customer demand criteria
• Creates excess and shortages
• not efficient over the long run
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The Pull System
Material is pulled through the system Material is pulled through the system when neededwhen needed
Reversal of traditional push system Reversal of traditional push system where material is pushed according where material is pushed according to a scheduleto a schedule
Forces cooperationForces cooperationPrevent over and underproductionPrevent over and underproduction
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Kanban Production Control System
Kanban card indicates standard quantity Kanban card indicates standard quantity of productionof production
Derived from two-bin inventory systemDerived from two-bin inventory system Kanban maintains discipline of pull Kanban maintains discipline of pull
productionproduction Production kanban authorizes productionProduction kanban authorizes production Withdrawal kanban authorizes movement Withdrawal kanban authorizes movement
of goodsof goods
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A Sample Kanban
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The Origin of Kanban
a) Two-bin inventory systema) Two-bin inventory system b) Kanban inventory b) Kanban inventory systemsystem
Reorder Reorder cardcard
Bin 1Bin 1
Bin 2Bin 2
Q - R
KanbanKanban
RR
QQ = order quantity = order quantity
RR = reorder point - demand during lead time = reorder point - demand during lead time
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Types of Kanbans
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Types of Kanbans
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Types of Kanbans
Bin Kanban - when bin is empty Bin Kanban - when bin is empty replenishreplenish
Kanban SquareKanban SquareMarked area designed to hold itemsMarked area designed to hold items
Signal KanbanSignal KanbanTriangular kanban used to signal Triangular kanban used to signal
production at the previous workstationproduction at the previous workstation Material KanbanMaterial Kanban
Used to order material in advance of a Used to order material in advance of a processprocess
Supplier KanbansSupplier KanbansRotate between the factory and suppliersRotate between the factory and suppliers
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Determining Number of Kanbans
wherewhere
NN = number of kanbans or containers= number of kanbans or containersdd = average demand over some time period= average demand over some time periodLL = lead time to replenish an order= lead time to replenish an orderSS = safety stock= safety stockCC = container size= container size
No. of Kanbans =No. of Kanbans =average demand during lead time + safety stockaverage demand during lead time + safety stock
container sizecontainer size
NN = =dLdL + + SS
CC
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Determining the Number of Kanbans
dd = 150 bottles per hour= 150 bottles per hourLL = 30 minutes = 0.5 hours= 30 minutes = 0.5 hoursSS = 0.10(150 x 0.5) = 7.5= 0.10(150 x 0.5) = 7.5CC = 25 bottles= 25 bottles
Round up to 4 (to allow some slack) or Round up to 4 (to allow some slack) or down to 3 (to force improvement)down to 3 (to force improvement)
NN = == =
= = 3.3 kanbans or containers= = 3.3 kanbans or containers
dLdL + + SSCC
(150 x 0.5) + 7.5(150 x 0.5) + 7.5
252575 + 7.575 + 7.5
2525
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Small-Lot Production
Requires less space & capital Requires less space & capital investmentinvestment
Moves processes closer togetherMoves processes closer togetherMakes quality problems easier to Makes quality problems easier to
detectdetectMakes processes more dependent Makes processes more dependent
on each otheron each other
In theory:
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Reducing waste: Increase Problem VisibilityLower the Water to Expose the Rocks
Scrap &Rework
Missed Due DatesToo Much Space
Late Deliveries
Poor Quality
Machine Downtime
Engineering Change Orders
Long queues
Too much paperwork
100% inspection
Inve
ntor
y
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Inventory Hides Problems
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Components of Lead Time
Processing timeProcessing time Reduce number of items or improve Reduce number of items or improve
efficiencyefficiencyMove timeMove time
Reduce distances, simplify Reduce distances, simplify movements, standardizemovements, standardize routingsroutings
Waiting timeWaiting time Better scheduling, sufficient capacityBetter scheduling, sufficient capacity
Setup timeSetup time Generally the biggest bottleneckGenerally the biggest bottleneck
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SMED Principles
1.1. Separate internal setup from Separate internal setup from external setupexternal setup
2.2. Convert internal setup to external Convert internal setup to external setupsetup
3.3. Streamline all aspects of setupStreamline all aspects of setup
4.4. Perform setup activities in Perform setup activities in parallel or eliminate them entirelyparallel or eliminate them entirely
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Common Techniques for Reducing Setup Time
• Preset Buttons/settings
• Quick fasteners
• Reduce tool requirements
• Locator pins
• Guides to prevent misalignment
• Standardization
• Easier movement
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Uniform Production
Results from smoothing production Results from smoothing production requirementsrequirements
Kanban systems can handle +/- 10% Kanban systems can handle +/- 10% demand changesdemand changes
Smooths demand across planning Smooths demand across planning horizonhorizon
Mixed-model assembly steadies Mixed-model assembly steadies component productioncomponent production
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Quality at the Source
Jidoka is authority to stop production Jidoka is authority to stop production lineline
Andon lights signal quality problemsAndon lights signal quality problemsUndercapacity scheduling allows for Undercapacity scheduling allows for
planning, problem solving & planning, problem solving & maintenancemaintenance
Visual control makes problems visibleVisual control makes problems visiblePoka-yoke prevents defects (mistake Poka-yoke prevents defects (mistake
proof the system)proof the system)
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Visual Control
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Visual Control
In use at Harley-Davidsonand at Opal Plant - Russelsheim
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Visual Control
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Kaizen
Continuous improvementContinuous improvementRequires total employment Requires total employment
involvementinvolvementEssence of JIT is willingness of Essence of JIT is willingness of
workers toworkers toSpot quality problemsSpot quality problemsHalt production when necessaryHalt production when necessaryGenerate ideas for improvementGenerate ideas for improvementAnalyze problemsAnalyze problemsPerform different functionsPerform different functions
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Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
Breakdown maintenanceBreakdown maintenance Repairs to make failed machine operationalRepairs to make failed machine operational
Preventive maintenancePreventive maintenance System of periodic inspection & maintenance System of periodic inspection & maintenance
to keep machines operatingto keep machines operating
TPM combines preventive maintenance & TPM combines preventive maintenance & total quality conceptstotal quality concepts
Commercial industry answer to PMCS
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TPM Requires Management to:
Design products that can be easily produced Design products that can be easily produced on existing machineson existing machines
Design machines for easier operation, Design machines for easier operation, changeover, maintenancechangeover, maintenance
Train & retrain workers to operate machinesTrain & retrain workers to operate machines Purchase machines that maximize Purchase machines that maximize
productive potentialproductive potential Design preventive maintenance plan Design preventive maintenance plan
spanning life of machinespanning life of machine
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Goals of JIT
1.1. Reduced inventory - Reduced inventory - where?where?
2.2. Improved qualityImproved quality3.3. Lower costsLower costs4.4. Reduced space Reduced space
requirementsrequirements5.5. Shorter lead timeShorter lead time6.6. Increased Increased
productivityproductivity7.7. Greater flexibilityGreater flexibility
8.8. Better relations with Better relations with supplierssuppliers
9.9. Simplified scheduling Simplified scheduling and control activitiesand control activities
10.10. Increased capacityIncreased capacity11.11. Better use of human Better use of human
resourcesresources12.12. More product varietyMore product variety13.13. Continuous Process Continuous Process
ImprovementImprovement
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Use JIT to finely tune an operating Use JIT to finely tune an operating systemsystem
Somewhat different in Somewhat different in USA than JapanUSA than Japan
JIT is still evolvingJIT is still evolving JIT as an inventory reduction program JIT as an inventory reduction program
isn’t for everyone - JIT as a CPI isn’t for everyone - JIT as a CPI program is!program is!
Some systems need Just-in-Some systems need Just-in-Case inventoryCase inventory
JIT Implementation
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JIT In Services
Competition on speed & qualityCompetition on speed & qualityMultifunctional department store Multifunctional department store
workersworkersWork cells at fast-food restaurantsWork cells at fast-food restaurantsJust-in-time publishing for Just-in-time publishing for
textbooks - on demand publishing textbooks - on demand publishing a growing industrya growing industry
Construction firms receiving Construction firms receiving material just as neededmaterial just as needed
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Reverse Logistics: Important or Irritant?
Estimated $100 billion industry in 2006
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“In an ideal world, reverse logistics would not exist.”
Jim Whalen, “In Through the Out Door,”Warehousing Management, March 2001
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“Now, more than ever, reverse logistics is seen
as being important.”
Dale Rogers, Going Backwards, 1999
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Reverse Logistics - What is it?The Army’s Definition
The return of serviceable supplies that are surplus to the needs of the unit or are unserviceable and in need of rebuild or remanufacturing to return the item to a serviceable status
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Reverse Logistics - What is it?The Commercial Perspective
• Reverse Logistics is the process of moving products from their typical final destination to another point, for the purpose of capturing value otherwise unavailable, or for the proper disposal of the products.
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Typical Reverse Logistics Activities
• Processing returned merchandise - damaged, seasonal, restock, salvage, recall, or excess inventory
• Recycling packaging materials/containers
• Reconditioning, refurbishing, remanufacturing
• Disposition of obsolete stuff• Hazmat recovery
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Why Reverse Logistics?
• Competitive advantage
• Customer service
- Very Important: 57%
- Important: 18%
- Somewhat/unimportant:23%
• Bottom line profits
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Reverse Logistics - New Problem?
• Sherman• Montgomery Ward’s - 1894• Recycling/remanufacturing in 1940s• World War II - 77,000,000 square feet of
storage across Europe with over $6.3 billion in excess stuff
• Salvage and reuse of clothing and shoes in the Pacific Theater World War II
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Key Dates in Reverse Logistics
• World War II – the advent of refurbished automobile parts due to shortages
• 1984 - Tylenol Scare - Johnson and Johnson• 1991 - German ordinance that put teeth in
environmental reverse pipeline• Summer 1996 – UK Packaging and Packaging
Waste Legislation• 1998 - first real study of reverse logistics in
the US - University of Nevada, Reno• 2001 – EU goal of 50-65% recovering or
recycling of packaging waste
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Reverse Logistics
A US Army Perspective
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Operation Iraqi Freedom
The US Army moved the equivalent of 150 Wal-Mart Supercenters to Kuwait in a matter of a few months
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Military Operations and Excess
“In battle, troops get temperamental and ask for things which they really do not need. However, where humanly possible, their requests, no matter how unreasonable, should be answered.” George S. Patton, Jr.
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Jane’s Defence Weekly
“Recent report (Aug 2003): There is a 40 hectare (~100 acres) area in Kuwait with items waiting to be retrograded back to the US.”
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From GAO Audit Report
Does this create a problem?
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From GAO Audit Report
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Reverse Logistics
• Rate of returns?
• Cost to process a return?
• Time to get the item back on the shelf if resaleable?
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Costs - above the cost of the item
– Merchandise credits to the customers.
– The transportation costs of moving the items from the retail stores to the central returns distribution center.
– The repackaging of the serviceable items for resale.
– The cost of warehousing the items awaiting disposition.
– The cost of disposing of items that are unserviceable, damaged, or obsolete.
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Costs
• Process inbound shipment at a major distribution center = 1.1 days
• Process inbound return shipment = 8.5 days
• Cost of lost sales• Wal-Mart: Christmas 2003 - returns = 4
Days of Supply for all of Wal-Mart = 2000 Containers
• PalmOne - 25% return rate on PDAs
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More Costs
• Hoover - $40 Million per year
• Cost of processing $85 per item
• Unnamed Distribution Company - $700K items on reverse auction
• 2001 - over $60 billion in returns; $52 billion excess to systems; $40 billion to process
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Is it a problem?
• Estimate of 2004 holiday returns: $13.2 billion• % of estimated 2004/2005 holiday returns: 25%• Wal-Mart: $6 Billion in annual returns = 17,000
truck loads (>46 trucks a day)• Electronics: $10 Billion annually in returns• Personal Computers: $1.5 Billion annually =
approximately $95 per PC sold• 79% of returned PCs have no defects
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Is it a Problem?
• European influence – spread to US - Green Laws• Estee Lauder - $60 million a year into land fills• FORTUNE 500 Company - $200 million over their
$300 million budget for returns• Same Provider - 40,000 products returned per
month; 55% no faults noted• K-Mart - $980 million in returns 1999• Warranty vice paid repairs
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More consequences
• Increased Customer Wait Times
• Loss of Confidence in the Supply System
• Multiple orders for the same items
• Excess supplies in the forward pipeline
• Increase in “stuff” in the reverse pipeline
• Constipated supply chain
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Impact?
• Every resaleable item that is in the reverse supply chain results in a potential stock out or “zero balance” at the next level of supply.
• Creates a “stockout” do-loop
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Results?
• This potential for a stock out results in additional parts on the shelves at each location to prevent a stock out from occurring.
• More stocks = “larger logistics footprint” = the need for larger distribution centers and returns centers.
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Dawes’ Six Symptoms of a Problem
1. Returned merchandise or supplies arrive faster than they are processed or disposed of.
2. There are large amounts of returned inventory held in the distribution center or warehouse.
3. There are unidentified or unauthorized returns.
4. There is a lengthy processing cycle time for returned goods.
Dr. Richard Dawes, University of San Francisco
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Six Symptoms (Continued)
5. The total cost of the returns process is unknown.
6. Customers lose confidence in the repair activities.
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Reverse Logistics
• Estimated $ 58.34 Billion in 2004 in the U.S. alone
• For "industrial equipment" the return rate is over 8% and the total revenue impacted by returns is $105.6 billion in 2005, in just the U.S. alone.
• For computers and network equipment, the return rate reaches as high as 20%, for a 2005 total of $65.8 billion, up from $61.4 billion in 2004.
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Reverse Logistics
• According to the Reverse Logistics Executive Council, the percent increase in costs for processing a return, as compared to a forward sale, is an astounding 200-300%.
• “In the U.S. alone, the cost is an annual $100 billion.” Forbes, March 2005
• Typically, as many as 8 more steps per item in the reverse pipeline than items in the forward pipeline
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RFID and Returns
• Visibility Tracking
• Component tracking
• Data Warehouse on what, why, when
• Altered products
• Not for every product
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Impacts of Reverse Logistics
• Forecasting• Carrying costs• Processing costs• Warehousing• Distribution• Transportation• Personnel• Marketing
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Upcoming
• Next week –– Chap 14/16/3
• Final Exam due back Friday week