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![Page 1: Chapter 13 Managing Aggregate Demand: Monetary Policy Victorians heard with grave attention that the Bank Rate had been raised. They did not know what.](https://reader034.fdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042603/56649dde5503460f94ad7728/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 13
Managing Aggregate Demand:
Monetary Policy
Victorians heard with grave attention that the Bank Rate had been raised. They did not know what it
meant. But they knew that it was an act of extreme wisdom.
JOHN KENNETH GALBRAITH
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Outline
• Fed as a central bank• Monetary policy
– Tools
– Mechanism
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Money and Income: Difference
• Money– At one point in time (stock)
– E.g.: money stock (M1)
• Income– Over a period of time (flow)
– E.g.: nominal GDP per year
4
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The Federal Reserve System
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The Federal Reserve System
• The Federal Reserve System, “The Fed”– U.S. central bank
• Bank for banks
– Origins• 1873-1907: four severe banking panics
– Established in 1914 by the Congress to regulate commercial banks
Discussion: Why do we need a central Discussion: Why do we need a central bank?bank? 6
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Dow-Jones Industrial Average
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Bank Run on Wall Street, 1907
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The Federal Reserve System
• Organization of the Fed– Board of Governors
– FOMC
– 12 Regional Banks
– Member Banks
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The Federal Reserve System
• Board of Governors (7 members)– Main governing body of the Fed
– Appointed by U.S. President• Chairman (4-year term)
– Advice & consent of Senate
– 14-year term
– Oversees System operations, makes regulatory decisions, and sets reserve reserve requirements requirements
10
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The Federal Reserve System
• The Fed has 12 regional banks– Each independently incorporated with a
9-member board of directors
– Set discount ratediscount rate, subject to approval by Board of Governors
– Monitor economy and financial institutions in their districts and provide financial services to the U.S. government and depository institutions
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The Federal Reserve System
• Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)– 12 members
• 7 governors of the Fed• President of the Fed – New York• 4 (of 11) district banks presidents on a
rotating basis
– Meet eight times a year in DC
– Determine short-term interest ratesshort-term interest rates (FFR)
– Size of U.S. money supply
12
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FOMC Meeting
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The Federal Reserve System
• 3400 member banksmember banks– Private banks
– Hold stock in their local Federal Reserve Bank
– Elect six of the nine members of Reserve Banks’ boards of directors
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The Federal Reserve System• Central bank independence
– Make decisions without political interference (without prior approval from Congress or the President)
– Institutional arrangement guarantees the independence
– Unique structure provides internal checks and balances, not dominated by one part of the system
– Help control inflation
Discussion: Why do we need CBI?Discussion: Why do we need CBI? 15
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Central bank independence
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Tools of Monetary Policy
• Open market operations• Discount rate• Reserve requirements
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Implementing Monetary Policy
• Open-market operations (OMOs)– Fed’s purchase / sale
• Short-term government securities (T-bills)• Transactions: Open market
• The Fed uses OMOs to affect market interest rates– Purchase: Treasury bills
– Pays: newly created bank reserves
– Put pressure on market interest rate
• The most frequently used tool 18
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Implementing Monetary Policy
• Market for bank reserves– Supply curve
• Determined by Federal Reserve policy• Upward-sloping
– Demand curve• Banks – required to hold reserves• Reflects
– Demand for transaction deposits – banks
• Depends on real GDP & price level• Downward-sloping (Why?)
19
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The market for bank reserves
Figure 1
20
Quantity of Bank Reserves
Inte
rest
Rat
e
S
SD
D
E
For given
Fed policy
For given
Y and P
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Implementing Monetary Policy
• Market for bank reserves– Federal funds rate (FFR)Federal funds rate (FFR)
• Interest rate• Borrow/lend reserves among banks
• The Fed – lower federal funds rate– Purchase T-bills
• Additional reserves to market
– Supply curve – shift outward• Lower interest rates• More bank reserves
21
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The effects of an open-market purchase
Figure 2
22
Quantity of Bank Reserves
Inte
rest
Rat
e
S0
S0
D
D
S1
S1
E
A
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Implementing Monetary Policy
• Federal Reserve– Wants lower interest rates
– Purchases U.S. government securities• In the open market• Pays - creating new bank reserves• Required reserve – no change• Actual reserves – increased • Excess reserves
– Multiple expansion process – Increase money supply by 1/m1/m times
23
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Effects of an open-market purchase of securities on the balance sheets of banks and the Fed
Table 1
24
Banks
Assets Liabilities
Federal Reserve System
Assets Liabilities
Reserves +$100 million
U.S. government
securities -$100 million
Addendum: Changes
in Reserves
Actual Reserves
+$100 million
Required Reserves
No Change
Excess Reserves
+$100 million
U.S. government
securities +$100 million
Bank Reserves
+$100 million
Bank gets Reserves
Fed gets securities
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Implementing Monetary Policy
• OMOs might not be perfect accurate– People - hold cash
– Banks - hold excess reserves
• However, Fed can always achieve the FFR it wants– FFR is observable in the open market
every minute
– Fed can always adjust the volume of T-bills it needs to buy/sell
• OMOs is very flexibleflexible, fine tunefine tune policy 25
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Implementing Monetary Policy
• Federal Reserve– Wants to increase interest rates
– Sells U.S. government securities• In the open market• Banks pay: reserves (deposits at the Fed)
– Multiple contraction process – Decrease money supply by 1/m1/m times
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Implementing Monetary Policy
Another way to look at OMO (via bond bond marketmarket)
• Expansionary monetary policy– Fed buys T-bills– T-bill prices – increase
• Demand – unchanged• Supply (available to private investorsavailable to private investors)
– Inward shift
– Interest rates – fall• Interest rate = fixed dividend / bond price• Bond price ↑ → interest rate ↓ 27
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Open-market purchases and treasury bill prices
Figure 3
28
Quantity of Treasury Bills
Pric
e of
a T
reas
ury
Bill
S0
S0
D
D
S1
S1
P0
P1A
B
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Implementing Monetary Policy
Summary of OMO:• Open-market purchase-T-bills
– Raises the money supply
– Drives up T-bill prices
– Pushes interest rates down
• Open-market sale - T- bills– Reduces the money supply
– Lowers T-bill prices
– Raises interest rates29
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Effective FFR
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Nearly Zero FFR
• Discussion: In the current recession, Discussion: In the current recession, Fed already set FFR close to zero. Fed already set FFR close to zero. Does this mean the effect of OMOs is Does this mean the effect of OMOs is limited? What should Fed do if OMOs limited? What should Fed do if OMOs do not work?do not work?
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Other Methods of Monetary Control• The Fed – lender of last resort
– Lending to member banks
• Discount rate– Interest rate charged by Fed for overnight
loans that member banks borrow via “Discount WindowDiscount Window”
– generally set at a rate close to 1% above the target FFR
• Discount rate – decrease– Banks – borrow more
– Increase excessexcess reserves 32
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Balance sheet changes for borrowing from the Fed
Table 2
33
Banks
Assets Liabilities
Federal Reserve System
Assets Liabilities
Reserves
+$5 million
Loan from
Fed +$5 million
Addendum:
Changes in
Reserves
Actual Reserves
+$5 million
Required
Reserves
No Change
Excess Reserves
+$5 million
Loan to
Bank +$5 million
Bank Reserves
+$5 million
And the proceeds are credited
to its reserve account
Bank borrows $5 million
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Other Methods of Monetary Control
• Minimum required reserve ratio (m)– Decrease
• Increase excess reserves– Money expansion
• Lower interest rates
– Increase• Decrease excess reserves
– Money contraction
• Higher interest rates
– 10% since 199234
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How Monetary Policy Works
• Expansionary monetary policy– Open-market purchase
– Lower interest rates
• Contractionary monetary policy– Open-market sale
– Raise interest rates
35
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The effects of monetary policy on interest rates
Figure 4
36
Bank Reserves
Inte
rest
Rat
e
S0
S0D
D
S1
S1
E
A
(a)
Expansionary Monetary Policy
Bank Reserves
Inte
rest
Rat
e
S0
S0
D
D
S2
S2
E
B
(b)
Contractionary Monetary Policy
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How Monetary Policy Works
• Sensitive to monetary policy– Investment (depends on r)
– Net exports (via exchange rate, Chp. 18)
• AD = C +II +G +(X-IMX-IM) is thus affected• Reminder: fiscal policy affects AD through
GG (directly) and CC an II (indirectly via tax)• Discussion: fiscal policy vs. monetary Discussion: fiscal policy vs. monetary
policy, pros and conspolicy, pros and cons
37
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The effect of interest rates on total expenditure
Figure 5
38Real GDP
Rea
l Exp
endi
ture
45°
C+I+G+(X-IM)
C+I+G+(X-IM)
(lower interest rate)
C+I+G+(X-IM)
(higher interest rate)
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How Monetary Policy Works
• Expansionary monetary policy– Lower interest rates (r)
– Encourage investment (I)
– Higher total spending
– Higher expenditure schedule
– Multiplier effect on aggregate demand
39
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How Monetary Policy Works
• Contractionary monetary policy–Higher interest rates (r)–Lower investment spending (I)–Lower total spending [C+I+G+(X-
IM)]–Lower expenditure schedule–Lower aggregate demand through
multiplier
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Mechanism of Mon. Policy (P constant)
GDPIMXGIC 43
321
)(
Ir and MPolicy
Reserve Federal
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The effect of expansionary monetary policy on total expenditure
Figure 6
42
Rea
l Exp
endi
ture
45°
C+I1+G+(X-IM)
C+I0+G+(X-IM)
E0
E1
6,5006,0000
Real GDP
5,500 7,000
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How Monetary Policy Works
• Effect of monetary policy– On aggregate demand
– Depends on• Sensitivity of interest rates
– To open-market operations
• Responsiveness of investment spending– To interest rate
• Size of basic expenditure multiplier
43
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Money & Price Level in Keynesian Model
• Expansionary monetary policy– Increases aggregate quantity demanded
• At any given price level
– Causes some inflation• Depends on slope of aggregate supply curve
44
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Money & Price Level in Keynesian Model
PYIMXGIC and )(
Ir and MPolicy
Reserve Federal
43
321
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Inflationary effects of expansionary monetary policy
Figure 7
46
Pric
e Le
vel
0
Real GDP
6,4006,000
S
S
D0
D0
100
E103
D1
D1
B$500 billion
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Money & Price Level in Keynesian Model
• Aggregate demand – slopes downward– Higher price level (caused by
expansionary monetary policy)• Reduce purchasing power• Depress exports, Stimulate imports• Increase quantity of bank deposits demanded
– Demand curve (bank reserves) – shift outward– Increase federal funds rate– Higher interest rate– Discourage investment– Lower aggregate quantity demanded
47
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The effect of a higher price level on the market for bank reserves
Figure 8
48
Bank Reserves
Inte
rest
Rat
e
S
S D0
D0
D1
D1
Effect of a
higher P
E1
E0
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Summary
• Fed: Origin and structure• Central bank independence• Tools of monetary policy
– OMO– Discount rate– Reserve requirement
• Mechanism of the monetary policy– Interest rate → Investment → AD → Y and P