Chapter 12~ The Cell Cycle 2007-2008 Biology is the only subject in which multiplication is the same...
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Transcript of Chapter 12~ The Cell Cycle 2007-2008 Biology is the only subject in which multiplication is the same...
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Chapter 12~ The Cell Cycle
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2007-2008
Biology is the only subject in which multiplication is the same thing as division…
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For reproduction asexual reproduction
one-celled organisms
For growth from fertilized egg to
multi-celled organism For repair & renewal
replace cells that die from normal wear & tear or from injury
Why do cells divide?
amoeba
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Importance of Cell Division1. Growth and Development
2. Asexual Reproduction 3. Tissue Renewal
Zygote Embryo Fetus Adult1 Cell 100 cells millions cells 100 trillion cells
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DNA organization in Prokaryotes
Nucleoid region Bacterial Chromosome
Single (1) circular DNA Small
(e.g. E. coli is 4.6X106 bp, ~1/100th human chromosome)
Plasmids – extra chromosomal DNA
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Bacterial Fission
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The Cell Cycle Interphase (90% of
cycle) • G1 phase~ growth • S phase~ synthesis of
DNA • G2 phase~ preparation
for cell division Mitotic phase • Mitosis~ nuclear
division • Cytokinesis~
cytoplasm division
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Parts of Cell Cycle
• Interphase– G1– S phase– G2
• M phase– Mitosis (Division of
nucleus)• Prophase• Prometaphase• Metaphase• Anaphase• Telophase
– Cytokinesis (Division of cytoplasm)
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Cell Division: Key Roles Genome: cell’s genetic
information Somatic (body cells) cells Gametes (reproductive cells):
sperm and egg cells Chromosomes: condensed
DNA molecules Diploid (2n): 2 sets of
chromosomes Haploid (1n): 1 set of
chromosomes Chromatin: DNA-protein
complex Chromatids: replicated
strands of a chromosome Centromere: narrowing
“waist” of sister chromatids Mitosis: nuclear division Cytokinesis: cytoplasm
division Meiosis: gamete cell division
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10
Chromosome Organization When cells divide, daughter cells must
each receive complete copy of DNA Each cell has about 2 meters of DNA in
the nucleus; thin threads called chromatin
Before division, condenses to form chromosomes
DNA also replicates before cell division to produce paired chromatids
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double-strandedmitotic humanchromosomes
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12
Normal Karyotype (Fig 18.1)
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Mitosis Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
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Prophase Chromatin condenses
visible chromosomes chromatids
Centrioles move to opposite poles of cell
animal cell Protein fibers cross cell to
form mitotic spindle microtubules
Nucleolus disappears Nuclear membrane breaks
down
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Prometaphase spindle fibers
attach to centromeres
creating kinetochores
microtubules attach at kinetochores
connect centromeres to centrioles
chromosomes begin moving
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Metaphase Centrosomes at
opposite poles Centromeres are
aligned Kinetochores of
sister chromatids attached to microtubules (spindle)
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Anaphase Paired centromeres
separate; sister chromatids liberated
Chromosomes move to opposite poles
Each pole now has a complete set of chromosomes
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Separation of chromatids In anaphase, proteins holding together
sister chromatids are inactivated separate to become individual
chromosomes
2 chromosomes1 chromosome2 chromatids single-stranded
double-stranded
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Kinetochores use motor proteins that “walk” chromosome along attached microtubule microtubule
shortens by dismantling at kinetochore (chromosome) end
Chromosome movement
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Telophase Daughter nuclei form Nuclear envelopes
arise Chromatin becomes
less coiled Two new nuclei
complete mitosis Cytokinesis begins
cell division
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Mitosis in whitefish blastula
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Mitosis in plant cell
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Cytokinesis Cytoplasmic division Animals
constriction belt of actin microfilaments around equator of cell
cleavage furrow forms
splits cell in two like tightening a
draw string
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Cytokinesis in Plants Plants
cell plate forms vesicles line up at
equator derived from Golgi
vesicles fuse to form 2 cell membranes
new cell wall laid down between membranes
new cell wall fuses with existing cell wall
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onion root tip
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Any Questions??
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Cell Cycle regulation
Checkpoints cell cycle controlled
by STOP & GO chemical signals at critical points
signals indicate if key cellular processes have been completed correctly
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Checkpoint control system 3 major checkpoints:
G1/S can DNA synthesis begin?
G2/M has DNA synthesis been
completed correctly? commitment to mitosis
spindle checkpoint are all chromosomes
attached to spindle? can sister chromatids
separate correctly?
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G1/S checkpoint G1/S checkpoint is most critical
primary decision point “restriction point”
if cell receives “GO” signal, it divides internal signals: cell growth (size), cell nutrition external signals: “growth factors”
if cell does not receive signal, it exits cycle & switches to G0 phase
non-dividing, working state
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“Go-ahead” signals
Protein signals that promote cell growth & division internal signals
“promoting factors” external signals
“growth factors” Primary mechanism of control
phosphorylation kinase enzymes either activates or inactivates cell signals
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Cell cycle signals Cell cycle controls
cyclins regulatory proteins levels cycle in the cell
Cdks cyclin-dependent kinases phosphorylates cellular proteins
activates or inactivates proteins Cdk-cyclin complex
triggers passage through different stages of cell cycle
activated Cdk
inactivated Cdk
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External signals Growth factors
coordination between cells protein signals released by
body cells that stimulate other cells to divide
density-dependent inhibition crowded cells stop dividing each cell binds a bit of growth
factor not enough activator left to
trigger division in any one cell anchorage dependence
to divide cells must be attached to a substrate
“touch sensor” receptors
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Growth Factors and Cancer
Growth factors can create cancers proto-oncogenes
normally activates cell division growth factor genes become oncogenes (cancer-causing) when
mutated if switched “ON” can cause cancer example: RAS (activates cyclins)
tumor-suppressor genes normally inhibits cell division if switched “OFF” can cause cancer example: p53
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Cancer & Cell Growth Cancer is essentially a failure
of cell division control unrestrained, uncontrolled cell growth
What control is lost? lose checkpoint stops gene p53 plays a key role in G1/S restriction
point p53 protein halts cell division if it detects damaged DNA
options: stimulates repair enzymes to fix DNA forces cell into G0 resting stage keeps cell in G1 arrest causes apoptosis of damaged cell
ALL cancers have to shut down p53 activityp53 discovered at Stony Brook by Dr. Arnold Levine
p53 is theCell CycleEnforcer
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DNA damage is causedby heat, radiation, or chemicals.
p53 allows cellswith repairedDNA to divide.
Step 1
DNA damage iscaused by heat,radiation, or chemicals.
Step 1 Step 2
Damaged cells continue to divide.If other damage accumulates, thecell can turn cancerous.
Step 3p53 triggers the destruction of cells damaged beyond repair.
ABNORMAL p53
NORMAL p53
abnormalp53 protein
cancercell
Step 3The p53 protein fails to stopcell division and repair DNA.Cell divides without repair todamaged DNA.
Cell division stops, and p53 triggers enzymes to repair damaged region.
Step 2
DNA repair enzymep53protein
p53protein
p53 — master regulator gene
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Development of Cancer Cancer develops only after a cell
experiences ~6 key mutations (“hits”) unlimited growth
turn on growth promoter genes ignore checkpoints
turn off tumor suppressor genes (p53) escape apoptosis
turn off suicide genes immortality = unlimited divisions
turn on chromosome maintenance genes promotes blood vessel growth
turn on blood vessel growth genes overcome anchor & density dependence
turn off touch-sensor gene
It’s like anout-of-controlcar with manysystems failing!
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What causes these “hits”? Mutations in cells can be triggered by
UV radiation chemical
exposure radiation
exposure heat
cigarette smoke pollution age genetics
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Tumors Mass of abnormal cells
Benign tumor abnormal cells remain at original site as a
lump p53 has halted cell divisions
most do not cause serious problems &can be removed by surgery
Malignant tumor cells leave original site
lose attachment to nearby cells carried by blood & lymph system to other tissues start more tumors = metastasis
impair functions of organs throughout body
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Cancer: breast cancer cell & mammogram
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Traditional treatments for cancers
Treatments target rapidly dividing cells high-energy radiation
kills rapidly dividing cells chemotherapy
stop DNA replication stop mitosis & cytokinesis stop blood vessel growth
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New “miracle drugs” Drugs targeting proteins (enzymes)
found only in cancer cells Gleevec
treatment for adult leukemia (CML)& stomach cancer (GIST)
1st successful drug targeting only cancer cells
Novartes
withoutGleevec
withGleevec
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2008-2009
Any Questions??