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CHAPTER 11
PERSONALITY
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What is personality?
• An individual’s unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persists over time and across situations.
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© Prentice Hall, 1999
Classes of Personality Theories
• Psychodynamic theories
• Humanistic theories
• Trait theories
• Cognitive-social learning theories
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Psychodynamic Theories• Personality is the result of unconscious
motivations and conflicts.
• Sigmund Freud is the founder• “Neo-Freudians:” Others who followed
Freud (his students)
• Carl Jung Karen Horney
• Alfred Adler Erik Erikson
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Sigmund Freud
• Psychoanalysis - Freud’s theory of personality and method of therapy
• Freud focused on the “unconscious”
• drives, desires, needs, and conflicts which we are unaware of guide behavior
• Freud’s view of humanity is “deterministic” (little free will) and pessimistic
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A few facts about Freud• He was an extremely intelligent man
• Early in his career, he thought cocaine could be a treatment to help depressed patients, that didn’t work out
• He smoked so many cigars that he developed terrible cancer of the jaw
• He sometimes fainted in front of his colleagues (esp. Carl Jung)
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Freud’s Structure of Personality
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Freud’s 3 Levels of Consciousness
• conscious: ideas, thoughts, and feelings of which we are aware.
• preconscious: material that can be easily brought into awareness
• unconscious: material that we can become aware of “only” with great effort and difficulty “if at all”
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Freud’s 3 Personality Structures
• id: The collection of unconscious urges and desires that continually seek expression
• ego: The part of the personality that mediates between the demands of the id and the superego
• superego: internalized values of family and society (our conscience)
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Id• contains primitive drives or “instincts”
including life instincts “eros” and death instincts “thanatos”
• libido: energy generated by the sexual drive, a life instinct
• pleasure principle: the id seeks to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
• primary process thought: id operates on a very basic primitive type of thought
• the id is mostly unconscious
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Ego
• operates at all 3 levels of consciousness
• reality principle: ego strives to satisfy id needs within the constraints of the real world and the superego
• secondary process thought: ego uses a more sophisticated, realistic way of thinking and solving problems
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© Prentice Hall, 1999
Superego
• operates at all 3 levels of consciousness
• contains the internalized values of family and society
• it is highly moralistic, like a strict parent
• GUILT originates in the superego
• EGO IDEAL - part of the superego, an idealized image of what we think we should be
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Freud’s 5 Psychosexual Stagesof Development
• At each stage libido energy is focused on a different part of the body
• fixation: if too much or too little gratification of the libidinal drive is provided at any stage, the personality becomes “fixated” at that stage and development gets “stuck” at that stage
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Freud’s Psychosexual Stagesorder is important, not exact times
• oral stage (birth - 18 months)
• anal stage (18 months - 3.5 years)
• phallic stage (3.5 - 6 years)
• latency stage (6 years - puberty)
• genital stage (puberty on)
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Oral Stage• First stage of personality development
in which the infant’s erotic feelings center on the mouth, lips, and tongue
• pleasure is derived from biting and sucking
• oral fixation - chewing, smoking, sarcastic speech, etc.
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Anal Stage
• At this stage, the focus of child and parents is on toilet training.
• Conflict arises as parents make efforts to toilet train the child. Can lead to an anal fixation if toilet training is too strict
• anal fixation - being rigid, overly neat, and obsessed with detail, or possibly, being messy and disorganized
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Phallic Stage
• Erotic feelings center on the genitals
• Oedipus complex - male child lusts after the mother, sees father as a competitor, fears retaliation
• Electra complex - female child is attracted to father and resents mother
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Latency Stage
• Libido and sexual energy decrease, the sexual interests of the phallic stage become “dormant” or “latent”
• “Alfalfa” and other boys might join the “he man woman haters club”
• child resolves the Oedipus or Electra complex by “identifying” with the same-sex parent during “this” stage
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Genital Stage
• with the arrival of puberty, the individual shows mature romantic and sexual interest in the opposite sex
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Carl Jung• Swiss psychiatrist who Freud saw as his
successor
• Jun came to disagree with Freud:– Freud focused too much on the sexual drive
– Jung thought the unconscious was a source of energy and strength, not just needs and desires
– Jung had a more positive view of human nature, people are rational and spiritual
– development does not stop at puberty
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Jung’s 2 Divisions of the Unconscious
• personal unconscious: contains each individual’s repressed thoughts, forgotten experiences, and undeveloped ideas
• collective unconscious: contains images and ideas (archetypes) that are common to all humans. These have developed over our evolutionary history and are present at birth
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Some Archetypes• mother: a protective presence, source of life
• hero: one who overcomes
• persona: our public self (literally “mask”)
• anima: The expression of feminine traits in the male (love, nurturance, sensitivity)
• animus: The expression of masculine traits in the female (assertiveness, competitiveness)
• Shadow: similar to Freud’s id, the “dark side” of our personality
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Jung classified people based on the flow of their “psychic energy”
• extraverts: energy is directed toward the external world, are social and like working with others (e.g., politicians)
whereas
• introverts:: “psychic energy” is focused more inward on themselves and their own thoughts and feelings (e.g., poets)
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Jung also classified people based on how they understand and relate to the world
• rational: regulate their actions primarily by “thinking” or “feeling”
or
• irrational: regulate their actions through the senses “sensing” or through unconscious processes “intuiting”
• irrational here does not have any negative connotations (not “crazy”). It’s just how that person attempts to understand the world
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Alfred Adler• personality: develops out of our efforts to
overcome real or imagined weakness or inferiority
• compensation: one’s effort to overcome imagined or real personal weaknesses
• inferiority complex: extreme fixation on feelings of personal inferiority that results in emotional and social paralysis
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• fictional finalism: a goal of perfection that we strive toward but which we will likely not achieve. The important thing is working towards it
• style of life: a set of beliefs and values that we develop as we strive toward individual and social perfection
Alfred Adler
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Karen Horney
• anxiety: The individual’s reaction to real or imagined threats
• basic anxiety: develops in childhood out of the child’s dependence on others, esp. parents. Poor parenting could lead to excessive anxiety
• neurotic trends: Three irrational strategies for coping with emotional problems and minimizing anxiety as we deal with others
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• 1. moving towards people (submission), being a “people pleaser,” Logic is, If I’m nice to you, then you won’t hurt me.
• 2. moving against people (aggression), If I hurt you first, then you can’t hurt me.
• 3. moving away from people (detachment), by avoiding people the person reduces the chance of being hurt
Horney’s 3 Neurotic Trends
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Erik Erikson
• agreed with Freud’s “psychosexual stages” but felt that development did not stop at puberty
• probably responsible for the term “identity crisis,” he had his own!
• posited 8 stages of development, each with a task or “issue” to be resolved
• success at each stage depends on how the previous stages were resolved
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Erikson’s 8 Stages of Personality Development
• trust vs. mistrust (first year of life) *• autonomy vs. shame and doubt (ages 1-3)• initiative vs. guilt (ages 3-6)• industry vs. inferiority (ages 6-13)• identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) *• intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood)• generativity vs. stagnation (ages 25-60)• integrity vs. despair (ages 60 and up)• * these two stages are particularly important
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Trust vs. Mistrust
Trust
• good maternal relationship builds faith in the predictability of the environment
• optimism about the future
Mistrust
• bad maternal relationship leads to suspicious and fearful personality
• the world is seen as a dangerous place
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Identity vs. Role Confusion
Identity
• integration of one’s feelings, ideas, and experiences into a coherent identity with clear opinions and goals
Role Confusion
• failure to integrate these parts of the personality leads to a lack of personal identity and despair
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Freud vs. Erickson
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Humanistic Personality Theory
• Any personality theory that asserts the fundamental goodness of people and their striving toward higher levels of functioning.
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Carl Rogers• Rogers is the best known of the humanists• actualizing tendency: The drive of every
biological organism to become all it is inherently capable of becoming (even plants).
• self-actualizing tendency: The drive of human beings to fulfill their potential.
• fully functioning person: An individual whose self-concept matches his/her inborn potentials. One whose actual self and idealized self are similar
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What makes a Fully Functioning Person
• unconditional positive regard: parental acceptance and love regardless of our behavior leads to becoming a fully functioning person. Also the cardinal rule in humanistic psychotherapy
• conditional positive regard: acceptance and love dependent on behaving in certain ways and fulfilling certain conditions. What we more often get from parents and out in the real world
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Trait Theoriesmuch of this section is NOT in the textbook
• focus is on “describing” personality
• personality traits are “characteristics,” “dimensions,” or “factors” on which people differ (e.g., assertiveness, friendliness)
• many trait theorists see genes and heredity as important determinants of personality
• trait theorists rely heavily of the statistical technique of “factor analysis”
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Factor analysis - developed by Charles Spearman
• method used by Cattell, Sheldon, Eysenck and others to identify the primary dimensions of personality
• e.g, boldness and sociability are traits or “dimensions” of personality that are related to the primary “factor” of extraversion
• e.g., moodiness, anxiousness, obsessiveness, and perfectionism are traits that are related to the primary factor of “neuroticism”
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Hippocrates’ Theory of the “Humors”
Personality reflects the balance of 4 bodily humors
1. black bile - predominance leads to a sad (melancholic) personality2. Yellow bile - predominance leads to an excitable (choleric) personality3. Phlegm - predominance leads to a slow sluggish (phlegmatic) personality4. Blood - predominance leads to a relaxed, playful (sanguine) personality
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Constitutional Theory
• William Sheldon - suggested that body type (somatotype) was predictive of one’s personality type
• 3 basic body types “Somatotypes”
– ectomorphic: thin and frail
– mesomorphic: strong and muscular
– endomorphic: soft and round
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• 3 basic “personality types
• cerebrotonic: quiet, scholarly, timid
• somatotonic: bold, adventurous
• visceratonic: cheerful, calm, relaxed
Sheldon found strong correlations between
being endomorphic and cerebrotonic
being mesomorphic and somatotonic
being endomorphic and viscerotonic
He was a diligent researcher. Unfortunately,
his work has not received much recognition.
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Hans J. Eysenck’s Typology
• Eysenck was a controversial figure who questioned the efficacy of psychoanalysis
• he felt we inherited basic response tendencies which interacted with environment to produce personality
• Eysenck posited two basic traits or “factors” of personality
– 1. Neuroticism (stability vs. instability)
– 2. Extraversion-Introversion
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• Neuroticism: highly neurotic people have a very active sympathetic nervous system making them unstable and very reactive
• Extraversion-Introversion: – Introverts are highly sensitive to “stimuli” and
“condition” easily and strongly. They learn society’s rules too well.
– Extraverts are NOT very sensitive to “stimuli” and they condition weakly and not easily. They don’t learn society’s rules very well.
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• Stable people: tend to function well, whether an introvert or an extravert
• Neurotic introverts: tend to suffer from fears, phobias, and depression because of their “biology” (they are melancholic - all superego)
• Neurotic extraverts: tend to be impulsive and, in the extreme, antisocial (they are choleric - all id)
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Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions
melancholic
sanguinephlegmatic
choleric
(Neurotic)
Hippocrates’ types
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How many factors do we need?
• Eysenck originally suggested two
• Sheldon suggested three
• Cattell suggested 16 factors
• Other theories suggest different numbers
• Currently, the most popular trait model in psychology is the “BIG FIVE” (the five factor model)
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The “Big 5” Dimensions of Personality
(Neuroticism)
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The Situationist Position• “Situationists” argue that people behave
in certain ways not because of their traits but because of the situations in which they find themselves
• Walter Mischel - is the most vocal proponent of this position
• “Interactionism” a compromise position that acknowledges the roles of both traits and situations
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Cognitive-Social Learning Theories
• Personality has a lot to do with our own perceptions of ourselves and our abilities.
• Julian Rotter - Locus of Control
• Albert Bandura - Social Learning Theory
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Rotter’s Locus of Control
locus of control: - An expectancy about whether outcomes are under internal (our) control or external (outside) control.
• Internal locus: One who believes he can control his/her own fate, takes credit for successes and responsibility for failures
• external locus: One who believes his fate is determined by chance, luck, or the behavior of others. Responsibility lies outside the person
• It is generally accepted that having an “internal” locus is psychologically healthier
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• For Bandura:Personality is behavior and behavior depends on our expectations
• expectancies: What a person thinks will result from his behaving in a certain way in a certain situation
• performance standards: standards people develop and use to evaluate their behavior in a variety of situations
• self-efficacy: The expectancy that one’s efforts will be successful.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
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• Reciprocal determinism - Bandura’s concept that we act as a stimulus on the social environment and the environment, in turn, acts as a stimulus on us.
• An attractive, socially adept child is received well and valued by his peers. This increases his self-esteem which, in turn, makes him even more valued and liked.
• Unfortunately, the reverse could be true for an unattractive, socially inept child.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
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Methods of Personality Assessment
• personal interviews
• observation
• objective tests -(administered and scored in a standard way)
• projective tests (tests consisting of ambiguous or unstructured material)
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Two Types of Personal Interviews
• unstructured: The interviewer asks questions about any material that comes up and asks follow-up questions whenever appropriate (psychotherapy)
• structured: The order and content of the questions are fixed and the interviewer adheres to a set format.
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Observation
• One of the best ways of learning about personality, and behavior in general is direct observation
• However, because of factors like high cost and huge time requirements, this method is not often used
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Objective Tests• usually “pencil and paper” questionnaires• 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16PF): A personality test created by Cattell that provides scores on the 16 traits he identified (often used in vocational settings)
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): The most widely used personality test of any kind (the standard by which other tests are judged)
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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (continued)
• The MMPI has 10 “clinical scales”
• For convenience a person’s MMPI results are describes as a “profile” based on the two or three scales he/she scored highest on
• The MMPI is very long, having nearly 600 questions!
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Clinical Scales of the MMPI-2
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Projective Tests• “projective hypothesis” - the idea that we will
project unconscious thoughts and feelings onto an “ambiguous stimulus”
• These are favored by “psychodynamic” theorists
• Rorschach test: person responds to ten inkblots; what they see reveals aspects of their personality.
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): a series of pictures with people in various situations. The person tells a story which gives insight into his/her personality and problems