Chapter 11 OverviewChapter 11 Overview

Psychoanalytic theoriesPsychoanalytic theories Humanistic theoriesHumanistic theories Trait theoriesTrait theories Social-cognitive theoriesSocial-cognitive theories Nature, nurture, and personalityNature, nurture, and personality Personality assessmentPersonality assessment

Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic TheoriesTheories Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of is Freud’s theory of

personality and his therapy for treating personality and his therapy for treating psychological disorders; focuses on psychological disorders; focuses on unconscious processesunconscious processes

PersonalityPersonality is a person’s is a person’s characteristic pattern of behaving, characteristic pattern of behaving, thinking, and feelingthinking, and feeling

What are the three levels of What are the three levels of awareness in consciousness?awareness in consciousness?

The The consciousconscious– All thoughts, feelings, memories of which we All thoughts, feelings, memories of which we

are aware at a given momentare aware at a given moment The The preconsciouspreconscious

– Thoughts, feelings, memories that we are not Thoughts, feelings, memories that we are not consciously aware of but can easily bring to consciously aware of but can easily bring to mindmind

The The unconsciousunconscious– The primary motivating force of human The primary motivating force of human

behaviorbehavior– Contains repressed memories and instincts, Contains repressed memories and instincts,

wishes, and desires that have never been wishes, and desires that have never been consciousconscious

What are the roles of the id, What are the roles of the id, the ego, and the superego?the ego, and the superego?

IdId– Contains life and death instinctsContains life and death instincts– Operates according to the Operates according to the pleasure principlepleasure principle

EgoEgo– The logical, rational part of personalityThe logical, rational part of personality– Operates according to the Operates according to the reality principlereality principle

SuperegoSuperego– The moral system of the personalityThe moral system of the personality– Consists of the Consists of the conscienceconscience and the and the ego idealego ideal

Freud’s Conception of Freud’s Conception of PersonalityPersonality

EgoEgo is largely is largely conscious, but conscious, but partly unconsciouspartly unconscious

SuperegoSuperego operates at both operates at both the conscious and the conscious and unconscious levelsunconscious levels

IdId is completely is completely unconsciousunconscious

What is the purpose of defense What is the purpose of defense mechanisms?mechanisms?

The ego uses The ego uses defense mechanismsdefense mechanisms to to maintain self-esteem and protect itself from maintain self-esteem and protect itself from anxiety created by conflict between the id anxiety created by conflict between the id and superegoand superego– The id’s demands for pleasure often conflict The id’s demands for pleasure often conflict

with the superego’s desires for moral perfectionwith the superego’s desires for moral perfection e.g., ego protects itself from unacceptable e.g., ego protects itself from unacceptable

thoughts and memories through thoughts and memories through repressionrepression– Removing painful thoughts, memories, desires Removing painful thoughts, memories, desires

from consciousness and keeping them in the from consciousness and keeping them in the unconsciousunconscious

What are the psychosexual stages, What are the psychosexual stages, and why did Freud consider them and why did Freud consider them important in personality important in personality development?development?

According to Freud, the sex instinct is According to Freud, the sex instinct is the most important factor influencing the most important factor influencing personalitypersonality

It is present at birth, and then develops It is present at birth, and then develops through a series of through a series of psychosexual psychosexual stagesstages– Each stage involves an Each stage involves an erogenous zoneerogenous zone

and a conflictand a conflict– If the conflict is not resolved, the child If the conflict is not resolved, the child

develops a develops a fixationfixation, and a portion of the , and a portion of the libidolibido remains invested at that stage remains invested at that stage

What are the psychosexual stages, What are the psychosexual stages, and why did Freud consider them and why did Freud consider them important in personality important in personality development?development?

Oral stageOral stage:: Birth to 1 year Birth to 1 year– Conflict: WeaningConflict: Weaning– Fixation can lead to dependency and Fixation can lead to dependency and

passivity or sarcasm and hostilitypassivity or sarcasm and hostility Anal stageAnal stage:: 1 to 3 years 1 to 3 years

– Conflict: Toilet trainingConflict: Toilet training– Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness

and stinginess or messiness and and stinginess or messiness and rebelliousnessrebelliousness

What are the psychosexual What are the psychosexual stages, and why did Freud stages, and why did Freud consider them important in consider them important in personality development?personality development?

Phallic stagePhallic stage:: 3 to 5 or 6 years 3 to 5 or 6 years– Conflict: Conflict: Oedipus complexOedipus complex– Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and

promiscuity or excessive pride and promiscuity or excessive pride and chastitychastity

LatencyLatency:: 5 or 6 years to puberty 5 or 6 years to puberty– Period of sexual calmPeriod of sexual calm

Genital stageGenital stage:: Puberty on Puberty on– Revival of sexual interestsRevival of sexual interests

How do the views of the How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those neo-Freudians differ from those of Freud?of Freud?

In In Carl Jung’s Carl Jung’s theory, theory, the personality has the personality has three partsthree parts– EgoEgo– Personal Personal

unconsciousunconscious– Collective Collective

unconsciousunconscious Jung rejected Freud’s Jung rejected Freud’s

ideas ideas – that the sexual instinct that the sexual instinct

is the most important is the most important determinant of determinant of personality personality

– that personality is that personality is mostly formed in mostly formed in childhoodchildhood

How do the views of the neo-How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those of Freudians differ from those of Freud?Freud?

Alfred Adler’sAlfred Adler’s theory theory– The predominant force of the personality The predominant force of the personality

is not sexual in natureis not sexual in nature– The drive to overcome feelings of The drive to overcome feelings of

inferiority motivates most human behaviorinferiority motivates most human behavior When feelings of inferiority prevent personal When feelings of inferiority prevent personal

development, they constitute an development, they constitute an inferiority inferiority complexcomplex

How do the views of the neo-How do the views of the neo-Freudians differ from those of Freudians differ from those of Freud?Freud? Karen Horney Karen Horney believed that Freud believed that Freud

overemphasized the role of sexual overemphasized the role of sexual instinctinstinct– She rejected his psychosexual stages and She rejected his psychosexual stages and

ideas such as the Oedipus complex and ideas such as the Oedipus complex and penis envypenis envy

She argued that women’s psychological She argued that women’s psychological difficulties arise from failure to live up to difficulties arise from failure to live up to idealized versions of themselvesidealized versions of themselves– To be psychologically healthy, women and To be psychologically healthy, women and

men must overcome irrational beliefs about men must overcome irrational beliefs about the need for perfectionthe need for perfection

– These ideas can be seen in modern These ideas can be seen in modern cognitive-behavioral therapycognitive-behavioral therapy

Humanistic TheoriesHumanistic Theories

In In humanistic psychology, humanistic psychology, people people are assumed to have a natural are assumed to have a natural tendency toward growth and the tendency toward growth and the realization of their fullest potentialrealization of their fullest potential

These theories are more optimistic These theories are more optimistic about human nature than Freud’s about human nature than Freud’s theorytheory

But, like Freud’s theory, humanistic But, like Freud’s theory, humanistic theories are difficult to test theories are difficult to test scientificallyscientifically

What are some of the traits of What are some of the traits of self-actualizers?self-actualizers?

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) proposed Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) proposed a a hierarchy of needshierarchy of needs that motivates that motivates human behaviorhuman behavior

The highest need is The highest need is self-actualizationself-actualization Self actualizersSelf actualizers

– Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot dishonestydishonesty

– Tend not to depend on external authority, Tend not to depend on external authority, but are internally driven, autonomous, and but are internally driven, autonomous, and independentindependent

– Frequently have Frequently have peak experiencespeak experiences Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and Experiences of deep meaning, insight, and

harmony within themselves and with the universeharmony within themselves and with the universe

Why is unconditional positive Why is unconditional positive regard critical to personality?regard critical to personality?

According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987), our According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987), our parents set up parents set up conditions of worthconditions of worth– Conditions on which their positive regard Conditions on which their positive regard

dependsdepends These conditions force us to live These conditions force us to live

according to someone else’s valuesaccording to someone else’s values A goal of A goal of person-centered therapyperson-centered therapy is to is to

enable people to live by their own valuesenable people to live by their own values– And not live by the values of others to gain And not live by the values of others to gain

positive regardpositive regard– To achieve this, the therapist must give the To achieve this, the therapist must give the

client client unconditional positive regardunconditional positive regard

Trait TheoriesTrait Theories

Attempts to explain personality Attempts to explain personality and differences among people in and differences among people in terms of personal characteristics terms of personal characteristics that are stable across situationsthat are stable across situations

What were some of the ideas What were some of the ideas proposed by early trait proposed by early trait theorists?theorists? Allport (1897-1967) proposed two kinds Allport (1897-1967) proposed two kinds

of traitsof traits– Cardinal traitsCardinal traits

Which are so pervasive that almost every act can be Which are so pervasive that almost every act can be traced to their influencestraced to their influences

– Central traitsCentral traits The kinds of traits that one would mention in a The kinds of traits that one would mention in a

recommendation letterrecommendation letter Cattell’s(1950) theoryCattell’s(1950) theory

– Surface traitsSurface traits are the observable qualities of are the observable qualities of personalitypersonality

– Source traitsSource traits underlie surface traits, and underlie surface traits, and cause certain surface traits to cluster togethercause certain surface traits to cluster together

Cattell identified 23 source traitsCattell identified 23 source traits

What were some of the ideas What were some of the ideas proposed by early trait proposed by early trait theorists?theorists?

Eysenck (1916-1997) proposed that there are three Eysenck (1916-1997) proposed that there are three personality factorspersonality factors– PsychoticismPsychoticism

An individual’s link to realityAn individual’s link to reality– ExtraversionExtraversion

A dimension ranging from outgoing to shy A dimension ranging from outgoing to shy – NeuroticismNeuroticism

A dimension of emotional stability, from stable to A dimension of emotional stability, from stable to anxious and irritableanxious and irritable

These personality factors are rooted in neurological These personality factors are rooted in neurological functioningfunctioning– An idea that has been supported by modern brain-An idea that has been supported by modern brain-

imaging studiesimaging studies

What do five-factor theorists What do five-factor theorists consider to be the most consider to be the most important dimensions of important dimensions of personality?personality? The The five-factor model five-factor model is a trait theory is a trait theory

that attempts to explain personality that attempts to explain personality using five broad dimensions, each of using five broad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of which is composed of a constellation of personality traitspersonality traits– OpennessOpenness– ConscientiousnessConscientiousness– ExtraversionExtraversion– AgreeablenessAgreeableness– NeuroticismNeuroticism

What do five-factor theorists What do five-factor theorists consider to be the most consider to be the most important dimensions of important dimensions of personality?personality? OpennessOpenness

– Open to new experiences, curious, and broad Open to new experiences, curious, and broad minded versus having narrow interests and minded versus having narrow interests and preferring the familiarpreferring the familiar

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness– Reliable, orderly, and industrious versus Reliable, orderly, and industrious versus

undependable and lazyundependable and lazy ExtraversionExtraversion

– Outgoing with a preference to be around other Outgoing with a preference to be around other people versus shy with a preference to be alonepeople versus shy with a preference to be alone

AgreeablenessAgreeableness– Easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly and coldEasygoing and friendly versus unfriendly and cold

NeuroticismNeuroticism– Pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic and able Pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic and able

to take things in strideto take things in stride

Social-Cognitive Social-Cognitive TheoriesTheories The view that personality can be The view that personality can be

defined as a collection of learned defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social behaviors acquired through social interactionsinteractions

What are the components of What are the components of Bandura’s reciprocal Bandura’s reciprocal determinism model?determinism model?

Bandura proposed Bandura proposed that internal, that internal, environmental, and environmental, and behavioral variables behavioral variables interact to influence interact to influence personalitypersonality

An important cognitive An important cognitive factor in Bandura’s factor in Bandura’s theory is theory is self-efficacyself-efficacy– A person’s perception A person’s perception

of his or her ability to of his or her ability to perform competently perform competently whatever is attemptedwhatever is attempted

What does locus of control What does locus of control contribute to personality?contribute to personality?

Julian Rotter proposed a personality Julian Rotter proposed a personality factor called factor called locus of controllocus of control

People with an People with an internal locus of internal locus of controlcontrol– See themselves as primarily in control of See themselves as primarily in control of

their behavior and its consequencestheir behavior and its consequences People with an People with an external locus of external locus of

controlcontrol– Perceive that what happens to them is in Perceive that what happens to them is in

the hands of fate, luck, or chancethe hands of fate, luck, or chance

Nature, Nurture, and Nature, Nurture, and PersonalityPersonality Although all psychologists agree Although all psychologists agree

that our genes play at least some that our genes play at least some roles in personality, most also roles in personality, most also acknowledge that environmental acknowledge that environmental factors influence how our traits factors influence how our traits change over timechange over time

What have twin and adoption What have twin and adoption studies revealed about the studies revealed about the influence of genes on influence of genes on personality?personality?

How does personality differ How does personality differ across cultures?across cultures?

Advocates of the five-factor model Advocates of the five-factor model assert that the factors are universalassert that the factors are universal

But other theorists argue that cultures But other theorists argue that cultures differ in differ in individualism/collectivismindividualism/collectivism, a , a dimension of personalitydimension of personality– In In individualist culturesindividualist cultures more emphasis is more emphasis is

placed on independence and individual placed on independence and individual achievementachievement

– In In collectivist culturescollectivist cultures, people emphasize , people emphasize social connectedness and tend to define social connectedness and tend to define themselves in terms of group membershipthemselves in terms of group membership

Personality Personality AssessmentAssessment Personality assessment is Personality assessment is

commonly used in business and commonly used in business and industry to aid in hiring decisionsindustry to aid in hiring decisions

Clinical psychologists, Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and counselors use psychiatrists, and counselors use various ways of measuring various ways of measuring personality in the diagnosis of personality in the diagnosis of patients and in the assessment of patients and in the assessment of progress in therapyprogress in therapy

How do psychologists use How do psychologists use observations, interviews, and observations, interviews, and rating scales?rating scales? Assessment methods includeAssessment methods include

– Behavioral assessmentBehavioral assessment In which behavior is observed and recordedIn which behavior is observed and recorded

– Structured interviewsStructured interviews In which an interview follows a prescribed In which an interview follows a prescribed

procedureprocedure

Rating scalesRating scales provide a standardized provide a standardized format for recording behaviors or format for recording behaviors or interview responsesinterview responses

What is an inventory, and what What is an inventory, and what are the MMPI-2 and CPI are the MMPI-2 and CPI designed to reveal?designed to reveal?

An An inventory inventory is a paper and pencil is a paper and pencil test with questions about a person’s test with questions about a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviorsthoughts, feelings, and behaviors

– Scored according to a standard procedureScored according to a standard procedure– Used to measure several dimensions of Used to measure several dimensions of

personalitypersonality

What is an inventory, and what What is an inventory, and what are the MMPI-2 and CPI are the MMPI-2 and CPI designed to reveal?designed to reveal? The The Minnesota Multiphasic Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory Personality Inventory ((MMPI-2) MMPI-2) is is the most widely used personality the most widely used personality inventoryinventory

Used to screen for and diagnose Used to screen for and diagnose psychiatric problems and disorderspsychiatric problems and disorders

Includes 550 items that differentiate Includes 550 items that differentiate specific groups of psychiatric patients specific groups of psychiatric patients from people considered to be normalfrom people considered to be normal– Also includes validity scales, such as a Also includes validity scales, such as a

social desirabilitysocial desirability scale scale

What is an inventory, and what What is an inventory, and what are the MMPI-2 and CPI are the MMPI-2 and CPI designed to reveal?designed to reveal? California Personality Inventory (CPI)California Personality Inventory (CPI)

– Developed to assess personality in normal Developed to assess personality in normal individualsindividuals

– Is useful for predicting school achievement, Is useful for predicting school achievement, leadership and executive success, and leadership and executive success, and effectiveness of police and military personneleffectiveness of police and military personnel

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– Based on Jung’s theory of personalityBased on Jung’s theory of personality– Measures normal individual differences on Measures normal individual differences on

four personality dimensionsfour personality dimensions

How do projective tests provide How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly are some of the most commonly used projective tests?used projective tests?

A A projective test projective test is a personality test is a personality test consisting of inkblots, drawings of consisting of inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences for which there incomplete sentences for which there are no correct or incorrect responsesare no correct or incorrect responses

People respond by People respond by projectingprojecting their their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materialsconflicts onto the test materials

How do projective tests provide How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly are some of the most commonly used projective tests?used projective tests?

In the In the Rorschach Inkblot Method Rorschach Inkblot Method the the test taker is asked to describe 10 inkblotstest taker is asked to describe 10 inkblots

According to Rorschach, responses can According to Rorschach, responses can be used to diagnose disordersbe used to diagnose disorders

Critics argue that results are too Critics argue that results are too dependent on the judgment of the dependent on the judgment of the examinerexaminer

In response, Exner (1993) developed the In response, Exner (1993) developed the Comprehensive SystemComprehensive System for scoring for scoring

How do projective tests How do projective tests provide insight into provide insight into personality, and what are some personality, and what are some of the most commonly used of the most commonly used projective tests?projective tests?

How do projective tests provide How do projective tests provide insight into personality, and what insight into personality, and what are some of the most commonly are some of the most commonly used projective tests?used projective tests?

The The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by Henry Murraywas developed by Henry Murray

Test taker describes a series of drawings of Test taker describes a series of drawings of ambiguous human situationsambiguous human situations– Descriptions are thought to reveal inner feelings, Descriptions are thought to reveal inner feelings,

conflicts, and motivesconflicts, and motives Critics argue thatCritics argue that

– It relies too heavily on interpretation of the It relies too heavily on interpretation of the examinerexaminer

– Responses may reflect temporary states and may Responses may reflect temporary states and may not indicate more permanent aspects of not indicate more permanent aspects of personalitypersonality