RACIAL AND ETHNIC TENSIONS

Chapter 10

Race, ethnicity, and the social structure

Section 1

Race

Race and ethnicity are two most prominently ascribed statuses that societies use to distinguish one group of people from another

Since ancient times, people have attempted to group human beings into racial categories based on physical characteristicsThese attempts have produced a number of

classification systems

3 Historical Racial Categories Caucasoids

WhiteCharacterized by fair skin and straight or wavy

hair Mongoloids

AsiansIdentified by yellowish or brownish skin and by

distinctive folds on the eyelids Negroids

BlacksDistinguished by dark skin and tightly curled hair

Problems with Racial Categories

However, in reality people who are recognized as belonging to each of these racial categories exhibit a wide range of skin colors and hair textures.

Problems with classification system: hard to describe the complexities of the racesPeople of Southern IndiaAustralian Aborigines

Race

In Sociological terms race is a category of people who share inherited physical characteristics and whom others see as being a distinct group.For sociologists, the important issue is not

that a person has a specific skin color or hair texture but how people react to these physical characteristics and how these reactions affect individuals in society

Ethnicity

The set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes a group from another group is called ethnicity.

People who share a common cultural background and a common sense of identity are known as an ethnic group.

Ethnicity is generally based on cultural characteristics such as national origin, religion, language, customs, and values

Ethnicity

For an ethnic group to survive over time, its cultural beliefs and practices must be passed from generation to generation.

In some cases, ethnic identity over steps racial or national boundaries.Jews

Ethnicity Versus Race Ethnicity and race refer to two separate sets

of characteristics. Ethnicity is based on cultural considerations. Race is based on physical considerations. Nevertheless, some ethnic groups are also

racially distinct.African Americans are viewed as racially distinct

in the United States plus many African Americans also share a common ethnic heritage such as foods, music, speech, and cultural traits.

Minority No particular skin color, physical feature, or ethnic

background is superior or inferior by nature. However, many sociologists recognize that those

who hold power in society may place an arbitrary value on specific characteristics.

By establishing the values and norms of society, dominant-group members consciously and unconsciously create a social structure that operates in their favor.Speaking the language most common in a society is

one position of power held by the dominant group.

Minority The resources and rewards found in society are

limited. Consequently, the privileged position of the

dominant group is often gained at the expense of minority groups within society.

Minority group: a group of people who because of their physical characteristics or cultural practices are singled out and unequally treated.Group members view themselves as objects of

collective discrimination.Minority: has nothing to do with group’s size but it’s

unequal standing in their society.

Characteristics that distinguish minority groups from other groups in society – must exhibit ALL

Group possesses individual physical or cultural characteristics that differ from those of the dominant group.

Group members are the victims of unequal treatment at the hands of the dominant group.

Membership in the group is an ascribed status. Group members share a strong bond and a sense of

group loyalty. Members tend to practice endogamy – marriage

within the group.

Blue Eyed Experiment

What if you lived in a society where blue-eyed people were considered inferior? How do you think blue-eyed people would feel and behave? What about brown-eyed people?

Third grade teacher Jane Elliot conducted a unique experiment to find the answers to these questions.

Experiment Elliot assigned her 28 students to 1 of 2 groups depending on

whether their eyes were blue or brown. Blue-eyed students were told they were inferior. Elliot made up a list of rules that both groups would have to

follow. Brown-eyed kids were given an extra 5 minutes at recess.

They could go to lunch first and get second helpings.They could use the drinking fountain in the room

Blue-eyed kids would get a shorter recess periodWould wait to go to lunchWould have to use paper cups

With rules in place, Elliot took every opportunity to praise the brown-eyed students and to criticize those with blue eyes.

Reaction Elliot noted by lunchtime it was easy to tell if a

child was blue or brown eyed. Brown eyed kids were happy and alert.

Work was much better than before. Blue eyed kids looked miserable and

defeated.Work had deteriorated

More frightening Elliot said, was the way the brown eyed children behaved.Everything they said and did suggested they truly

believed they were superior.

Roles Reversed

On the 2nd day of the experiment, the roles reversed. Blue eyed students were now told that they were superior

and that brown eyed students were inferior. How did the students react? Elliot expected that since

they knew this was a one day experiment, the brown eyed students would not react so intensely.She was wrong.They behaved exactly as the blue eyed kids had.In a short time they began to look miserable, resentful, and

defeatedHowever, the blue eyed kids – now dominant group – were far

less unpleasant to the brown eyed group than the latter had been to them

Assignment

Complete the following:What can you learn from Jane Elliot’s

experiment about the relations between dominant groups and minority groups?

Write a short essay discussing the various dominant and minority groups, based on racial and other characteristics, that exist in your school and how relations between these two groups affect group members and their school.

Section 2: Patterns of intergroup relationsNo particular skin color, physical feature, or ethnic background is superior or inferior by nature. Minority status exists because of attitudes and actions of the dominant members of society.

Discrimination and Prejudice Discrimination and prejudice are common features of

the minority-group experience. Although words are used interchangeably,

discrimination and prejudice are two separate but related conditions.

Discrimination is the denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership.Discrimination involves behaviors

Prejudice is an unsupported generalization about a category of people.Prejudice involves attitudes

Discrimination

Found either on an individual level or on a societal level

Discriminatory acts range from name-calling and rudeness to acts of violenceActs of violence can lead to physical harm and even

deathBetween 1882 and 1970, more than 1,170 African

Americans were lynched by white mobs in the U.S. ○ In many cases, those lynched had not committed a

crime.○ Rather they were attempting to vote

2 Types of Societal Discrimination

Legal DiscriminationUpheld by lawExample: Apartheid in South Africa; Jim Crow

Laws in the U.S.Because legal discrimination is based on laws, it

can be stopped by changing the offending laws

2 Types of Societal Discrimination

Institutionalized DiscriminationOutgrowth of the structure of societyMore resistant to change than legal discrimination

○ Over time, unequal access to the resources of society pushes some minority groups into less-powerful positions.

○ Once this occurs, it is not necessary for the dominant group to consciously discriminate against these groups to maintain a system of inequality.

○ Thus discrimination becomes a part of the social structure.

○ Therefore institutionalized discrimination is self-perpetuating and can occur even when society takes legal steps to end discriminatory practices.

2 Types of Societal Discrimination

Institutionalized DiscriminationExample: minority groups denied jobs and housing because of

a prejudiced employer or landlord○ Over time, group members may become concentrated in low-

income communities.○ If schools in these communities are poorly funded, minority group

members may not acquire the skills needed to compete effectively in the labor market.Thus can’t find higher paying jobsWithout these jobs, members of this group are unable to move to better

neighborhoodsAs a result, their kids will have few opportunities for advancementTherefore, the cycle of inequality is maintained even when there is no

intentional discrimination

Prejudice Negative forms of prejudice often involve

stereotypes. A stereotype is an oversimplified, exaggerated,

or unfavorable generalization about a group of people.

When stereotyping, an individual forms an image of a particular group and then applies that image to all members of the group.

If individuals are found to differ from the stereotyped group image, they are thought to be exceptions to the rule, rather than proof that the stereotype is wrong.

Stereotyping can have grave consequences for society.

If people are told often enough and long enough that they or others are socially, mentally, or physically inferior, they may come to believe it no matter whether the accusations are true or not.

American Sociologist W. I. Thomas recognized this phenomenon in his famous theorem: “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”In other words: individuals see reality based on what

they believe to be true, not necessarily what is true.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Robert K. Merton further expanded on Thomas’

theorem by suggesting that a false definition of a situation can become a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Self-fulfilling prophecy: is a prediction that results in behavior that makes the prediction come true.

If members of a minority are seen as incapable of understanding technical info, they will not be given training in it. As a result, they will lack the skills needed to gain

employment in highly technical occupations. This lack of employment in technical fields will then be

taken as proof of the group’s inability to understand technical information.

Prejudice For the dominant group in society, prejudice serves

as a justification for discriminatory acts. Once people come to believe negative claims made

against members of a minority group, they may find it easier to accept open acts of discrimination.

Prejudicial beliefs that serve as justification for open discrimination often take the form of Racism - the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is naturally superior to other races or ethnic groups Throughout history, racism has been used as

justification for atrocities such as slavery and genocide.

While prejudice and discrimination are related, they do not always go hand-in hand. 4 possible combinations:

Prejudice

Discrimination

Yes No

No Timid BigotPrejudiced person who does not discriminate (is afraid to discriminate due to societal

pressures)

All-Weather LiberalNonprejudiced person who

does not discriminate

Yes Active BigotPrejudiced person who openly discriminates

Fair-Weather LiberalNonprejudiced person who

discriminates (anyway because of societal

pressures)

Ticket to Leave

Create a Venn Diagram comparing and contrasting prejudice and discrimination.

Sources of Discrimination and Prejudice

Various explanations which Sociologists often organize into 3 broad categories:SociologicalPsychologicalEconomic

Sociological Explanation Most sociological explanations of discrimination and prejudice

focuses on the social environment Environment includes the accepted social norms of society and

the process through which these norms are learned – socialization

In some societies, prejudices are embedded in the social norms. People become prejudice simply by internalizing these norms. Even if prejudice is not a part of the culture of society at large, it

may be a norm of groups within society. People often become prejudiced to maintain their group

membership. Become prejudice through their identification with a reference

group that encourages and supports such behavior.

Psychological Explanations Individual behavior is psychological focus People are prejudiced because they have a

particular kind of personality. A survey found that prejudiced people share

certain characteristics known as authoritarian personality.Authoritarians are strongly conformist, have great

respect for authority, and are highly likely to follow the orders of those in authority.

Exhibit a great deal of anger and are likely to blame other for their problems.

Scapegoating Another psychological explanation suggests that prejudice may be the

product of frustration and anger. When individuals have problems but cannot confront the real causes of

those problems , they often turn their frustration and anger on innocent groups.

Practice of placing the blame for one’s troubles on an innocent individual or group is called scapegoating.

By focusing on scapegoats, people sometimes gain a sense of superiority at a time when they are feeling powerless.

Minority groups often become scapegoats for a variety of reasons: Easy to recognize due to physical features, language, style of dress, or religious

practices They lack power in society and may be unlikely to fight back They are often concentrated in one geographic area and therefore are easily

accessible and an easy target They often have been the target of scapegoating in the past, so a certain amount

of hostility toward them already exists They often represent something – like an idea, attitude, or way of life – that the

scapegoats don’t like

Economic Explanations Prejudice and discrimination arise out of competition for scarce

resources Ex: 1850s large numbers of Chinese workers immigrated to West

Coast of U.S. At first they were welcomed as an inexpensive labor force However, when jobs became scarce many white workers began to view

the Chinese immigrants as economic competitors Many white Americans reacted to this competition with open violence

Conflict theorists suggest that the dominant group, to protect its position, encourages competition for resources among minority groups.

This competition creates a split labor market, in which workers are set against each other along racial and ethnic lines.

In the struggle for jobs, the various minority groups come to fear, distrust, and hate one another.

PATTERNS OF MINORITY

TREATMENT

Patterns of Minority Group Treatment Official policies toward minority groups within a society

vary widely. Most common patterns of minority treatment include:

from most accepted to highly rejected

Cultural Pluralism

Assimilation

Legal Protectio

n

Segregation

Subjugation

Population Transfer

Extermination

Ethnic and racial variety encouraged

Culturally distinct groups blended into a single group with common culture

Minority rights protected by law

Minority group physically separated from the dominant group.

Dominant group controls every aspect of minority group life through force.

Dominant group moves minority group to new locations within or outside the country.

Dominant group attempts to destroy minority group

Cultural Pluralism

This policy allows each group within society to keep its unique cultural identity.

Example: Switzerland – has 3 official languages – French, German, and Italian – one language for each of its 3 major ethnic groupsNo group is dominant and all live together

peacefully and are loyal to Switzerland

Assimilation

The blending of culturally distinct groups into a single group with a common culture and identity is called assimilation.In most societies, some assimilation occurs

voluntarily.Over time, the various groups within society

exchange many cultural traits as a natural outcome of daily interaction.

Attempts to force assimilation often lead to conflict.

Legal Protection

Many countries have taken legal steps to ensure that the rights of minority groups are protected.

Segregation Policies that physically separate a minority

group from the dominant group are referred to as segregation.

Under segregation, the minority group is forbidden to live in the same areas as the dominant group and cannot use the same public facilities.

Sociologists recognize 2 types of segregationDe jure segregation is based on lawsDe facto segregation is based on informal norms

Subjugation

Some countries engage in subjugation – the maintaining of control over a group through force.

Slavery – the ownership of one person by another – is the most extreme form of subjugation.Apartheid of South Africa – legal

segregation

Population Transfer Sometimes the dominant group in a society

separates itself from a minority group by transferring the minority population to a new territory directly or indirectly.

With indirect transfer, the dominant group makes life for minorities so miserable that they simply leave.

Direct transfer is where people are forcibly moved to new locations within a country.Native Americans

Extermination The most extreme response to the existence of

minority groups within a country is extermination. When the goal of extermination is the intentional

destruction of the entire targeted population, it is referred to as genocide.

In the last years of the 1900s, some dominant groups have combined population transfer and extermination in a practice called ethnic cleansing.

This practice involves removing a group from a particular area through terror, expulsion, and mass murder.

MINORITY GROUPS IN THE UNITED

STATES

An American Dilemma

Sociologist Gunnar Myrdal examined the issue of race relations in the United States in 1944.

Found a gap existed between what Americans claim to believe and how they actually behave.

Although Americans express support for equality, freedom, dignity of the individual, and inalienable rights, they have not always lived up to these ideals.

An American Dilemma Early North American settlers provided

the image of what many people think of as the typical American – white Anglo-Saxon descent and Protestant (WASP)

The WASP image does not do justice to the country’s great multicultural reality.

Yet the image has been the yardstick against which other groups within the US have been compared.

An American Dilemma

For the most part, minority groups have prospered in relation to how closely they adapt to the WASP image.

Those who can easily adapt are accepted into mainstream American society relatively quickly.

Groups such as African Americans, Hispanics, American Indians, Asian Americans, and white ethnics have had the most difficulty gaining acceptance.

African Americans Comprising more than 12 percent of the

population, African Americans are one of the largest minority groups in the country.

With the possible exceptions of American Indians and women, no other American minority group has suffered such a long history of prejudice and discrimination.

Civil rights movement of 1950s and 1960s brought significant gains for African Americans.

African Americans The percentage of the population completing high school is

now only a few points lower for African Americans than for white Americans.

About 24% of employed African Americans hold managerial or professional jobs.

Some 41% of African American households have middle-class incomes.

But other stats not so promising – percentage of African Americans completion four or more years of collage is just more than half that of white Americans.

The unemployment rate among African Americans is more than twice as high as the unemployment rate among white workers.

Solutions being sought and aided as more African Americans are taking a more active role in politics.

Hispanics 2000 census shows that the US is home to

more than 35 million Hispanics which is a 58% increase in the size of Hispanic population since 1990.

Hispanics have gained increasing political power and currently holding more than 5,400 elected and appointed offices.

Also control large voting blocks in some states.

Still lag behind nonHispanics in areas such as education and unemployment.

Asian Americans Like Hispanics, Asian Americans come from a variety of national

backgrounds. 6 largest groups: Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Korean, Vietnamese, and

Japanese ancestry Close to 4% of US population, Asian Americans are the country’s

third largest ethnic minority group. 2000 census – 10 million Asian Americans by 2050 expected to

comprise 9% of population The success of Asian Americans in achieving economic security and

social acceptance has led some to call them a “model minority” Many Asian Americans resent this label because it hides the fact

that the group has faced severe hardships in its quest for acceptance.

Although the group as a whole tends to hold high-status jobs and be better educated than the general population, not all Asian American groups are equally successful.

American Indians Estimates indicate when Europeans first set foot on the shores of what is

now the US, the American Indian population numbered in the millions. Tribes each had its own rich history and culture but life was greatly

altered by Europeans. 2000 census put the American Indian population at 2.5 million. Of all the country’s minority groups, American Indians face the greatest

challenges. Approx 50% of the American Indian workforce on or near the reservations is

unemployed. Some 31% live below poverty level – about 30% of those employed have incomes

below poverty level Rate of alcohol-related deaths is 7 times higher than regular population and

suicide rate is about 1.5 times higher Only about 66% aged 25+ have graduated from high school and less than 10% go

to college

American Indians American Indian problems, in large part, are the result

of a history of changing governmental policies. Government first took American Indian lands by force

and treaties then the government made American Indians wards and most were moved to reservations.

The government also created policies aimed at assimilating American Indians into white society. Men encouraged to be farmers even though traditionally

hunters or herders Tribal land was redistributed to male heads of households

disrupting communal nature of typical American societies Children separated from their parents and sent to boarding

schools.

American Indians

American Indians who lived away from the reservations and adopted the ways of white society were rewarded with US citizenship.

However, the rest of the American Indian population did not gain citizenship til 1924 when Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act.

White Ethnics Not all European immigrants were quickly

accepted into mainstream society. During the 1800s and early 1900s, white

ethnics – immigrants from the mainly Catholic countries of Ireland, Italy, France, Poland, and Greece – entered the US in great numbers.

These immigrants – who were collectively known as white ethnics – often faced open discrimination at the hands of the American-born Protestant majority.

White Ethnics The discrimination faced by white ethnics was based

on cultural and economic concerns. Came to US with little money and few skills Many white ethnics responded to discrimination by

assimilating rapidly into mainstream society. Others banded together in ethnic neighborhoods in

an attempt to hold on to their ethnic identities. Today, many have been accepted into mainstream

society. White ethnics are often stereotyped as poorly

educated but in reality half of all white ethnics have attended college – same % as white non-ethnics.