Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation
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Transcript of Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
An Overview of Anatomy
Anatomy The study of the structure of the human body
Physiology The study of body function *Please understand the difference between
structure and function
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An Overview of Anatomy
Anatomical terminology Based on ancient Greek or Latin Provides standard nomenclature worldwide
Branches of anatomy Gross anatomy Microscopic anatomy (histology) Surface anatomy – need to know what a normal
body looks like to identify anomalies, locate veins for venipuncture, etc.
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An Overview of Anatomy
Other branches of anatomy Developmental anatomy-structural changes of aging Embryology – study of development of fetus Pathological anatomy (pathology)- study of disease Radiographic anatomy- study of anatomy using radiographic
imagery, CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound**Why are there so many different imaging techniques? Please understand what each technique images Functional morphology Microscopic – anatomy of structures using various
microscopic instruments. Histology – study of tissues
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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Chemical level – atoms form molecules Cellular level – cells and their functional subunits Tissue level – a group of cells performing a common
function *Please think about the fact that our bodies are made of
atoms, the same thing as rocks, plants, stars and comets! By understanding the nature of specific atomic structures, you will become aware of how chemistry provides the basis of living systems. Chemistry is a simple matter of balancing electromagnetic charges! You can move a piece of metal by bringing a magnet nearby…movement!
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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Organ level – a discrete structure made up of more than one tissue. e.g. the heart is made of muscle (obviously), connective tissue, nerves and epithelial tissue (valves)
Organ system – organs working together for a common purpose
Organismal level – the result of all simpler levels working in unison
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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Figure 1.1
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Systemic v. Regional Anatomy
Systemic – study of anatomy by system Regional – study of anatomy by region Most students use a combination of regional and
systemic study
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Integumentary System
Forms external body covering Protects deeper tissues from injury Synthesizes vitamin D Site of cutaneous receptors
(pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=no_XRnoNGfE
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Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs Provides a framework for muscles Blood cells formed within bones Stores minerals http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vya4wpS2fgk
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Muscular System
Allows manipulation of environment Locomotion Facial expression Maintains posture Produces heat http://www.youtube.com/user/bigsmokes62#p/a/u/
1/RsWNyqnHQ2I
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Nervous System
Fast-acting control system Responds to internal and external changes
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Endocrine System
The Endocrine system works as a regulatory messaging system similar to the nervous system
Remember: cells are isolated! They don’t know what to do unless they are told what to do and either the nervous system or then endocrine system tells them what to do!
Glands secrete hormones that regulate Growth Reproduction Nutrient use
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Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide Also carries nutrients and wastes
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
Blood vessels are merely the plumbing which brings water, gases and nutrients to the individual cells. It is similar to a city’s water system. The heart is the pump just like our residential water has a pump station so that we have water pressure!
Again, the cells are (mostly) fixed and isolated and they rely on the intelligence of the monitoring systems of the body (the nervous system) to provide it’s needs.
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Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) Mounts attack against foreign substances in the
body
The lymphatic system is a highly understudied system in the body. It is in fact one of the most important systems of the body! Without proper functioning of this system, we would die!
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LymphedemaThe lymphatic
drainage of the leg is impaired and the fluid collects in the
limb causing it to swell. The cells are
improperly nourished and will become diseased.
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Respiratory System
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen Removes carbon dioxide Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in
the lungs
This is a simple system to understand but it also functions in the acid-base balance of the physiology
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Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
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Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
The cells of our body (all 70 trillion of them!) require an exact environment to survive. The urinary system along with the lymphatic system provides this environment directly.
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Why do we have body systems? What do they provide? Do we need all of them? How did they come about? What is homeostasis? How does each system contribute to homeostasis?
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Male & Female Reproductive Systems
Overall function is to produce offspring Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones Mammary glands produce milk
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Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
Anatomical position – a common visual reference point Person stands erect with feet together and eyes
forward Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed
away from the body Directional terminology – refers to the body in
anatomical position Standardized terms of directions are paired terms
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Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
Figure 1.3
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Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
Directional terms Regional terms – names of specific body areas
Axial region – the main axis of the body Appendicular region – the limbs
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Orientation and Directional Terms
Table 1.1 (1 of 3)
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Orientation and Directional Terms
Table 1.1 (1 of 3)
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Orientation and Directional Terms
Table 1.1 (2 of 3)
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Orientation and Directional Terms
Table 1.1 (3 of 3)
May be used on exams!
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Regional Terms
Figure 1.4a
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Regional Terms
Figure 1.4b
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Body Planes and Sections
Coronal (frontal) plane Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and
posterior parts Median (midsagittal) plane
Specific sagittal plane that lies vertically in the midline
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Body Planes and Sections
Transverse plane Runs horizontally
and divides body into superior and inferior parts
Figure 1.5
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Figure 1.6
Oblique Section Through the Trunk
Oblique Plane Divides the body at
an angle between the horizontal and vertical planes
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Banana Sectioned into Planes
Figure 1.7
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The Human Body Plan
Tube-within-a-tube Bilateral symmetry Dorsal hollow nerve cord Notochord (primative supporting rod) and vertebrae Segmentation Pharyngeal pouches (gills!) Post-anal tail (at some point in development) Characteristics common to all vertebrate
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Basic Human Body Plan and StructuresShared with all Vertebrates
Figure 1.8a
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Basic Human Body Plan and StructuresShared with all Vertebrates
Figure 1.8bMay be used on exams!
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Basic Human Body Plan and StructuresShared with all Vertebrates
Figure 1.8c
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Dorsal body cavity Cranial cavity Vertebral cavity
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Ventral body cavity Thoracic cavity – divided into three parts Be able to describe it’s location and contents! Anterior-sternum,
posterior-thoracic vertebrae, lateral-lungs, superior-1st rib, inferior-diaphragm Two lateral parts each containing a lung surrounded by a
pleural cavity Mediastinum – lies between the lungs and contains the heart
surrounded by the pericardial sac, the trachea, the esophagus, the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava and various nerves. This is an anatomically important area.
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Ventral cavity (continued) Abdominopelvic cavity – divided into two parts
Abdominal cavity – contains the liver, stomach, kidneys, and other organs
Pelvic cavity – contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and rectum
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Figure 1.9a
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Figure 1.9b
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Serous cavities – a coelomic cavity, like that enclosed by the pericardium, peritoneum, or pleura, not communicating with the outside body, and whose lining membrane secretes a serous fluid. Pleura (enclosing lungs), pericardium(enclosing heart), and peritoneum(enclosing most of abdominal organs but specifically NOT the kidneys!)
Parietal serosa – outer wall of the cavity Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs *Always remember the difference between parietal and
visceral…visceral is ALWAYS against the organ(s)
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Figure 1.10a, b
The purpose of the serosal membranes is to reduce friction so that viscera (organs) move freely and stay cool.
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Figure 1.10c
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Figure 1.10d
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Body Cavities and Membranes
Other cavities Oral cavity Nasal cavity Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities Synovial cavities
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Other Body Cavities
Figure 1.11
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Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine regions
Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into four quadrants Right upper and left upper quadrants Right lower and left lower quadrants
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Abdominal Regions
Figure 1.12a, b
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Abdominal Quadrants
Figure 1.12c
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Microscopic Anatomy
Microscopy – examining small structures through a microscope Light microscopy illuminates tissue with a beam
of light (lower magnification) Electron microscopy uses beams of electrons
(higher magnification) TEM transmission electron microscopy will
always be sharper than light microscope
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Microscopic Anatomy
Figure 1.13
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Microscopic Anatomy
Preparing human tissue for microscopy Specimen is fixed (preserved) and sectioned Specimen is stained to distinguish anatomical
structuresAcidic stain – negatively charged dye moleculesBasic stain – positively charged dye molecules
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Microscopic Anatomy
Scanning electron microscopy Heavy metal salt stain – deflects electrons in the
beam to different extents Artifacts
Minor distortions of preserved tissues Not exactly like living tissues and organs
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Clinical Anatomy – An Introduction to MedicalImaging Techniques
X ray – electromagnetic waves of very short length Best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense
structures
Figure 1.14
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Clinical Anatomy – An Introduction to MedicalImaging Techniques
Variations of X ray Fluoroscope – images are viewed on a fluorescent
screenAllows viewing of internal organs as they move
Cineradiography – uses X-ray cinema film to record organ movements
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
Computed (axial) tomography (CT or CAT) – takes successive X rays around a person's full circumference Translates recorded information into a detailed
picture of the body section This technique receives information only from
transverse planes and adds them up to form a 3D image.
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) imaging provides an unobstructed view of small arteries DSA is often used to identify blockages of arteries
that supply the heart or brain
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
Positron emission tomography (PET) – forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body
Sonography (ultrasound imaging) – body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body's tissues Imaging technique used to determine the age of a
developing fetus
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – produces high-quality images of soft tissues Distinguishes body tissues based on relative water
content
Figure 1.19a