Chapter 1 Study on Misinformation Effect

8/12/2019 Chapter 1 Study on Misinformation Effect

1/23

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Words have the power to change the way we think. They have the ability

to influence and/or alter ones thoughts, memories, and decision-making

processes. One way influence or alteration occurs is through the form of leading

questions. When people are asked leading questions, they will have a limited

range of response. The way specific words are arranged in a sentence could

mean one thing, while replacing even just one word could completely alter the

meaning. It is often the problem in a case of misinterpretation or

misunderstanding.

The researchers are aware that ones memory can be altered or that a

persons answers can be affected by such factors. The researchers have a friend

who has witnessed the power of leading questions over ones memory recall.

A friend name Bob (not his real name) is a college student. He went on a

road trip with his friends during the summer. They got into a quarrel with a local

man at a certain town. They were detained at a police station and were

interrogated by the policemen. It was clear that Bob and his friends were being

taken advantage of. They were treated badly and were asked harsh questions

regarding the incident that had occurred. At one point, a policeman asked Bobs

friend You banged into him. How hard was it? which elicited a kind of hard, I


2/23

2

guess response from the friend. In reality, it was Bob who had made contact

with the local guy. However, because the policeman, an authoritative figure,

made such an implicating statement, Bobs friend agreed with the statement and

replied without hesitation.

From the situation above, this has made the researchers ask the following

questions, what made Bobs friend admit to something he had not done? Was it

because of the way the policeman questioned him? If so, what exactly is the

reason behind such a phenomenon? Does the choice of words affect how a

persons perceives a situation? How is ones memory affected by leading

questions?

It is because of these issues that the researchers found the need of the

study. In order to determine how different types of leading questions affect ones

memory call, the researchers have decided to replicate Loftus and Palmers

classic experiment entitled: Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An

Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory (Loftus, Palmer,

1974).

With this, the researchers expect to learn more about how misleading

information, specifically leading questions, affect a persons memory.They also

hope to add this study to related literature in the Philippine setting.


3/23

3

Theoretical Background

There have been numerous research work and experiments depicting the

influence of leading questions on a persons memory recall and thus, the

persons responses to certain queries. The formation of theories regarding this

topic can trace its beginnings to the early 20thcentury (Bartlett, 1932). Elizabeth

Loftus is also widely known for her countless studies on memory alteration, with

her pioneering works on the influence of misleading information on ones memory

(Loftus and Palmer, 1974). This later led to the founding of the Misinformation

Effect (Loftus, 1975) which will be discussed later on in this chapter. First, it is

important to discuss the different variables in this study so as to obtain a clearer

understanding on how the variables interact.

A leading question is stated in such a way that may suggest or lead to a

desired answer or idea on a certain subject. The power of leading questions has

been seen and demonstrated by others on guessing measurements, past

personal experiences, and recently witnessed events (Loftus and Palmer, 1974).

Leading questions help form answers through word choice, response

framing, assumptions made, and form. Subtle changes in words influence how

people process and answer questions. Response framing limits answers that are

acceptable by suggesting and/or excluding ideas. Questions that are one-sided

and/or assumptive lead people to think differently and, in turn, answer differently

(Kellermann, 2007).


4/23

4

Examples of leading questions include How small was the female

ballerina? or How big was the female ballerina?. When people are asked

leading questions such as these, their answers may actually be influenced by the

type of words used. Depending on the choice of words, answers may depend on

what is being implied by the questions (Kellermann, 2007).

Questions such as How tall was the basketball player? or How long was

the movie? yield greater estimates compared to questions such as How short

was the basketball player? or How long was the movie? (Harris, 1973). The

same may be said for questions such as How fast was the car going?or How

slow was the car going? (Lipscomb, McAllister, & Bregman, 2001).

People tend to form ideas or choose answers that reflect what is being

suggested due to the belief that there is a basis or a valid premise in leading

questions. This is most common when they are unsure or do not have sufficient

information regarding the matter. Conclusions are usually made right away

(Grice, 1975). For example, when people hear a man being asked Do you still

beat your wife?, they automatically assume that he has been guilty of doing so.

It has been demonstrated that leading questions have a great influence

over ones own thoughts and selection of answers. When mental processes are

influenced or altered by such, it is also possible for ones memory, specifically,

memory recall (or memory retrieval) to undergo change as well. Before

discussing the theories on the combined variables, however, it is important to

understand the concept of memory and memory recall.


5/23

5

Memory, as defined by William James (1890) "..is the knowledge of a

former state of mind after it has already once dropped from consciousness; or

rather it is the knowledge of an event, or fact, of which meantime we have not

been thinking, with the additional consciousness that we have thought or

experienced it before" (p. 648).

Simply speaking, memory encompasses what we remember, and gives us

the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences along with forming

relationships. It is the ability to remember past experiences, and the capability of

recalling previously learned facts, experiences, skills and habits. Ones memory

is the storage site of information acquired from experiences. This is proven by

modification of structure or behavior and/or by recall and recognition (Mastin,

2010).

Ones memory is not limited to only one kind. There are different basic

types of memory. These are implicit, procedural, working, remote, semantic, and

episodic memory. Emphasis will only be given towards the semantic and episodic

memory. The semantic memory consists of generalized information of the

environment. It is the ability to distinguish the meaning of words and symbols. As

for episodic memory, specific events or recent experiences are encompassed

(Ariola, 2009). Together, the semantic and episodic memories make up the

declarative memory.

With these types of memories, there are three memory processes that

occur. These are the following: encoding, storing, and retrieving.


6/23

6

The first memory process is encoding. Data acquired through ones

senses are converted into a format kept in the brain ready to be recalled by either

the short-term memory or the long-term memory. After data or information is

encoded into the brain, it is kept in storage. This process is called storing.

Retrieval is the third process of memory in which stored data are retrieved and

used by ones consciousness (Ariola, 2009).

There are two principal methods of retrieval, namely recognition and

recall. Recognition is the ability to acknowledge or recognize past experiences,

people, etc. either through yes/no recognition (determining whether an item was

shown or not) or through forced-choice recognition (choose between two or more

alternatives). The method of recall is when a subject retrieves information from

past memories (Baddeley, 2004)

Memory recall has three types: free recall, cued recall, and serial recall.

The process of free recall is when a person is asked to recall as many items as

possible in any order given from a list. Usually, the primacy effect or the recency

effect occurs during this type of recall wherein the subject either remembers

mostly the initial items, or the last few items of the list. Cued recall is when a

person is able to recall things due to provided cues. The third type is serial recall.

This is the ability to recall or remember things in the order in which they took

place (Mastin, 2010).

It is clear that memories are formed from ones past experiences and

acquisition of knowledge and information. While data may be encoded and

stored into ones mind, there are factors that may lead to the alteration of these


7/23

7

memories or development of false ones which are manifested during the process

of memory retrieval. One such factor is misleading information or leading

questions.

Exposure to misleading information or questions often results in the

alteration or loss of ones original memory which is replaced by false information.

This phenomenon is known as the Misinformation Effect (Loftus, 1975).

This effect occurs when a persons memory recall of an event is altered by

misleading information (Weitan, 2010). There have been countless of studies

done on this topic, beginning with the original study of Loftus, Miller, and Burns in

1978. Her original study showed that one factor that increases misinformation

effects is the delay between the witnessed event and exposure to misinformation.

There are other factors that may increase misinformation effects. People

tend to be misled or influenced by others with seemingly high credibility; yet

resist the attempts of those who appear less credible (Dodd & Bradshaw, 1980).

Another factor, which has been mentioned previously, is the usage of leading

questions which can change ones episodic memory and thus affect a subjects

answers to questions about the original event (Karns, et al., 2009).

The theory on reconstructive memory supports this idea. Reconstructive

memory refers to the idea that retrieval of memories does not occur accurately

but instead involves a process of trying to reconstruct (rather than replay) past

events. It is believed that when a person is unsure or incapable of remembering


8/23

8

exactly certain past memories, episodic memories to be exact, they tend to use

other cues or schemas instead to fill in the missing gaps (Bartlett, 1932)

When leading questions are used on a person who is unsure or cannot

recall certain information, the episodic memory works hand-in-hand with the

semantic memory to deduce an appropriate response depending on what the

question is suggesting or leaning towards. For example, if a person encountered

a question such as How fast was the car going? and was unsure of the correct

answer, he/she would most likely think of a schema regarding the word fast

which would imply that the speed of the car was considerably high, thus leading

to the person to choose a high speed range.

These theories show that misleading information, specifically leading

questions, can alter ones memories and subsequently, ones memory recall.

Concerning our study which required the selected respondents to make speed

estimates, only those ages sixteen to seventeen were selected to partake in this

study. The reason behind this is that teenagers of this age bracket usually do not

have any drivers license yet, and driving experience is at its minimum as well.

Thus, there was a higher chance for the selected respondents to depend more

on the phrasing of the leading question in selecting their answers.


9/23

9

Review of Related Literature

There have been numerous studies done on the Misinformation Effect and

on how misleading information can alter a persons memory recall. Specifically,

there are a lot of past studies that were able to demonstrate the effects of leading

questions on ones memory recall. The researchers have provided several past

studies done in relation to this studys topic.

One of the pioneering studies made on the Misinformation Effect was that

conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer in 1974. They sought out to

determine how leading questions affect ones memory recall. They conducted

further studies to further prove that misleading information does alter ones

memory. In their second experiment, the asked their respondents if they saw any

broken glass during a particular car crash video. For the hit group, there were

seven yes and forty-three no while the smashed group garnered sixteen

yesand thirty-four no.

While majority of the respondents answered no, it can be observed that

the smashed group had higher affirmative answers. In reality, there was no

broken glass at all. It can be said that some of the respondents for the smashed

group rationalized that since the car had smashed into the other car, the gravity

of impact must have been really high so naturally there should have been broken

glass. Their memory recall was altered due to the previous leading question and

the follow-up question as well. (Loftus and Palmer, 1974).


10/23

10

This kind of study has been replicated, revised, or refined over the years

by other researchers. From here on, the researchers will provide recent related

studies that have been inspired by or are somehow related to the original work of

Loftus and Palmer.

In 1996, an experiment was performed by Crombag, Wagenaar, and van

Koppen in Amsterdam. Subjects were questioned about an airplane crash that

had been highly publicized at the time. They were asked a leading question

about seeing video footage of the crash. More than half said yes, when in reality,

no such film existed. In this example, the use of a leading question led the

respondents to remember a false event.

It has been proven that even strong memories, such as traumatic ones,

are susceptible to memory alteration. Such is the study done by Nourkova,

Bernstein, and Loftus in 2004. Participants were asked about their recall of either

attacks on Moscow apartment buildings or the attacks on the World Trade

Center. Six months later, the subjects were interviewed about the same events;

they were also asked if they remembered the wounded animal they had

supposedly mentioned in the first study this being the leading question. 12.5%

of the Moscow group said yes and even vividly described a dead animal.

Inspired by the works of Loftus, S. Cooley, a psychologist, also conducted

a study about how leading questions create false memories. The keywords used

in the experimental group had stronger connotation words than those used in the


11/23

11

control group. Similar to previous studies, the results showed that the use of

words with stronger connotations can cause people to create false memories

(2008).

In the Middle East, a study was conducted in 2013 that examined people

making decisions on speed estimation about a certain event and how they are

affected by leading words used on them. This study, done in Istanbul Bilgi

University by zen, nl, Trel, and Varl, indicated that participants gave higher

speed estimation when exposed to the leading question containing smashed

compared to the other groups of hit and no leading. This is consistent with all

the similar past studies.

It is clear and undeniable that misleading information, specifically leading

questions, can alter ones memories and even create false ones. There have

been many more studies done in the past that have yielded similar results. These

were usually done abroad in other countries.

However, when searching for related literature with Philippine origin, the

researchers were not able to find any that pointed at the same direction of this

topic. It is possible that there are a few studies, but these may either be very

outdated or not readily made available for public viewing. This has further

encouraged the researchers to pursue this study so that they may be able to

contribute to Philippine literature regarding this topic.


12/23

12

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1.0

Schematic Diagram of the Study

Based on the diagram, the study intended to determine and compare the

effect of certain leading words (independent variable) on a cars estimated speed

(dependent variable) among the two experimental groups of first year Pharmacy

students of Cebu Doctors University School Year 2013-2014.

Leading Words Used

Slow/Make

Contact Fast/Smashed

Its Effect

on the

Selectionof

Cars

Estimated

Speed


13/23

13

THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

The study aimed to determine the effects of leading questions on memory

recall among the first year Pharmacy students of Cebu Doctors University for the

Academic Year 2013-2014.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following statements:

1. For both groups, determine the mean speed estimate for each video

and compute the final average from the combined means.

2. Determine which group has a higher or lower mean speed estimate

3. Determine whether or not there is a significant difference between the

two computed mean speed estimates.

Statement of Null Hypothesis

The different adjectives and verbs used for each experimental group have

no significant effect on the first year Pharmacy students of Ceb u Doctors

University. There is no significant difference in mean speed range between

Group 1 and Group 2.


14/23

14

Significance of the Study

This study is beneficial to the respondents and to a lot of individuals such

as teachers, students, guidance counselors, psychologists, those in the legal and

law enforcement sector, and to other future researchers as well.

The study benefits teachers and students because there are a lot of

information exchanged and questions that are prevalent in the educational

sector. Studies such as these may provide insights towards teachers and

students alike on how crucial the way questions and information are being

delivered. Teachers may be able to apply what theyve read and understood on

how they deliver their lectures and construct tests. Because awareness on

misinformation theories tends to decrease ones susceptibility, students may be

able to realize how their answers may subconsciously be affected through the

choice of words being used in questions, and thus be more critical in choosing

their answers during tests.

Guidance counselors and psychologists are able to gain more ideas on

how to extract the kind of information they are looking for from their clients,

specifically children and mentally retarded individuals.

. Like the original study done by Loftus and Palmer (1974), the legal and

law enforcement sectors are able to benefit from this study. Because witnesses

can be swayed and confused into agreeing to something through the use of

leading questions, lawyers and judges can be vigilant on the type of questions

used during interrogation so as to avoid any incident that may lead to a witness


15/23

15

memory alteration or wrongful confession. For those in the law enforcement such

as policemen, they will have increased awareness and may be more careful with

the accounts of eyewitnesses because of the fact that these individuals tend to

make wrong accusations due to fuzzy memories or unsure answers which tend

to occur due to the Misinformation Effect.

Lastly, the researchers hope that their study and the ideas presented will

benefit future researchers since it can be used as a reference data in conducting

their own study that will somehow be related to this. The researchers can further

add literature to the Philippine setting concerning how misleading information

affects ones memory, especially since there is an apparent lack of related

studies made by Filipinos. Future researchers can choose to improve this study

in their own ways. Finally, they can also validate the results of the study, or nullify

it should the gathered data be contradictory or parallel to the outcome of the

current study.


16/23

16

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The research study focused on determining the effects of leading

questions on the car speed estimates of the two groups of selected first year

Pharmacy students ages sixteen to seventeen years old. Leading questions had

only two sets of adjectives and verbs: slow/fast and made contact/smashed.

The limitations of the study include:

1. RESPONSE BIAS

There are some people who may not be susceptible to leading

questions and may just end up purely guessing or making a

random speed estimate.

2. MASTERY OF THE SUBJECT

While the researchers will exclude students who are either licensed

drivers, have taken driving lessons, and/or have driving experience,

the possibility remains that there are some students who may be

good at making speed estimates and may not be swayed by the

leading questions used in the questionnaire.


17/23

17

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study utilized the Independent Measures Experimental Design to

determine and compare the influence of leading questions on the selection of a

cars speed range among two experimental groups consisting of first year

Pharmacy students of College of Pharmacy.

Research Environment

The study was conducted in the Cebu Doctors University which is situated

at P.V. Larrazabal Jr. Avenue, North Reclamation Area, Mandaue City,

Philippines. It is a paramedical school having eight (8) colleges. These colleges

are: College of Arts and Sciences, College of Optometry, College of Medicine,

College of Nursing, College of Dentistry, College of Allied Medical Sciences,

College of Rehabilitative Sciences, and College of Pharmacy.

The College of Pharmacy envisions to establish global recognition in the

field of pharmacy through international pharmaceutical linkages focusing on

desirable teacher/learner relationship with a distinct professional image as drug

experts in the health care team.

Research Respondents

The respondents of this study were selected through the purposive

random sampling method. In addition, there were inclusion criteria to be followed

in the selection of the respondents which were composed of the first year


18/23

18

Pharmacy students of the College of Pharmacy sixteen to seventeen (16-17)

years of age of both genders.

Respondents were excluded if they (a) currently have a drivers license (b)

are taking driving lessons, and (c) have past driving experience. All respondents

signed the informed-consent forms.

This study utilized the total population of the English 11 class for each first

year Pharmacy section according to the inclusion criteria. The total population of

the Pharmacy first year students for the English subject was seventy-one (71).

However, based on the inclusion criteria, only twenty-three (23) from the first

section and twenty-two (22) from the second section qualified. In order to make

the number of respondents equal for each group, the researchers chose to

include only twenty (20) students out of those who qualified for each group. For

this, the fish bowl method was used. Therefore, the total number of respondents

included in the study was forty (40) out of the total population of seventy-one (71)

first year Pharmacy students.

Research Instruments

The research instrument used for this study was a short self-made

questionnaire similar to that used in the original Loftus-Palmer experiment

(1974). With five short videos that were presented during data collection, there

were five corresponding questions for each video which brought the test to a total

of 25 questions. The first three questions for each segment were related to the

video depicting a car crash. These questions were the same for both


19/23

19

experimental groups and had three choices to select from. The fourth item was

the critical question for this study. It was the leading question used to determine

its effect on a respondents car speed estimate.

For Group 1, the leading question was stated using the words slow and

made contact in asking the respondents to determine the speed of the car in

question. For Group 2, the words used were fast and smashed. The fifth

question for each segment asked about a respondents past vehicular

experience. Each fifth question in each segment was different. It was through two

of these questions wherein the researchers were able to select those

respondents who met the requirements and included their results in the data

analysis. Just as the first three items for each segment had three choices, the

fifth question was likewise.

A pilot test was conducted on two block sections of first year students of

Cebu Doctors University. On the sixteenth (16th

) of September 2013, the first

group (slow/made contact), which consisted of 20 first year Medical Technology

students, were tested. The second group (fast/smashed) consisting of 20 first

year Psychology students were tested on the nineteenth (19 th) of September

2013. The results of the pilot test yielded a mean speed of 38.30 kph for the first

group and 71.50 kph for the second group. A value of -4.73 was computed using

the t-test, with the critical value being -2.093/2.093, thus showing a significant

difference between the two mean speeds of both groups.

Scoring was done by tallying all the answers of both groups for the fourth

test item in each segment. The answers were then categorized into 5 sets in


20/23

20

order to determine the mean speed estimate of each experimental group for

every specified car involved in a car accident as depicted in the video clip that

was shown to the respondents. Afterwards, the average speed was computed

from the sum of all five.

Research Procedures

Gathering of Data

Firstly, a transmittal letter was given to the Dean of the College of

Pharmacy for the intent to conduct the study. Upon the approval of the request, a

transmittal letter was also given to the Chair of the English Language Department

with the intent of conducting the study during the English 11 classes of the

respondents sometime between the 16thand 20thday of September, 2013.

During the experiment, passive deception was used. The researchers did

not state the full purpose verbally and in the informed-consent forms at the start.

However, at the end of the activity, debriefing took place and the respondents

were informed as to the extent of the study. This was done to avoid any biases

that may have occurred if the respondents were aware of the true nature of the

study.

Statistical Treatment of the Data

The mean for each set was computed in order to determine the mean

speed estimate. The formula for computing the mean of ungrouped data is as

follows:


21/23

21

Where:

X= mean

X= summation of X scores

N= total population

Their respective standard deviations were also obtained in order to determine the

level of variance for the answers of each set of scores. The formula in computing

the standard deviation of ungrouped data is as followed:

Where:

s= standard deviation

= summation of the data

X= individual score

X= mean

n= total number of observation

Finally, a Two-Tailed T-Test was carried out to see if the difference

between the two groups was significant. This type of statistical tool was used


22/23

22

because there were only two mean scores to compare. The formula for the t-

value is as follows:

Where:

t= t-value

X1= mean value of first set

X2= mean value of second set

n1= sample size of first set

n2= sample size of second set

s1= standard deviation of first set

s2= standard deviation of second set

The data was analyzed by comparing the computed t-value to the

corresponding critical value. When the t-value lies in the critical region, the null

hypothesis is rejected, and the alternative hypothesis is supported.


23/23

23

DEFINITION OF TERMS

LEADING QUESTIONS. This is a type of a question that is phrased in a

manner that tends to suggest a desired answer. In the two types of leadingquestions used in this study, there were two different adjectives and verbs.

These were: slow, fast, made contact, and smashed.

DEFINITION

SLOW This adjective is used to describe

movement that occurs at a low speed or

does not move at a quick pace.

FAST This adjective is used describe

movement that occurs at a high speed

or quick pace.

MADE CONTACT This verb is used to describe the coming

together or touching, as of objects or

surfaces.

SMASHED This verb is used to describe something

that hits or moves toward something a

very harsh or violent manner.

MEMORY RECALL. This is a type of memory retrieval wherein the subject

retrieves information from past memories.

Chapter 1 Study on Misinformation Effect

Documents

Transcript of Chapter 1 Study on Misinformation Effect