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CHAPTER 1

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

Ideas rule the world. They are stronger than all armies in the

barracks as well as they are the harbingers of all fortunes. An idea not

coupled with action is smaller than the brain cell it occupied. But a true

entrepreneur has the courage to take a calculated risk to pursue and practice

an idea. She will bite a little more than what she can chew, hoping that she

will quickly learn how to chew. Daring and innovative entrepreneurs were

always common people with uncommon way of doing the same thing what

others were doing in common. She can not be predicted because she

creates future. Entrepreneurship is thus, neither a science nor an art but

sheer practice – an idea of a man with ability to walk from problems to

problems with no loss of enthusiasm.

Entrepreneur is a rare breed. Economic empires were built and

bequeathed by them. Women were, however, found sparsely in these

realms, being restricted and restrained by multiple barriers. Gender

equality and empowerment of women is the third among the Millennium

Development Goals declared by Millennium Summit on 8th

September

2000 by UNO. Draft on agreed conclusions of 56th

Session of Commission

on Status of Women to be held on 27th

February to 9th

March 2012 at UN

Head Quarters in New York pointed out the urgency of elimination of all

forms of discriminations against women and provisions of legal framework

for gender equality as decision makers, producers, workers, entrepreneurs

and service providers.

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But in women equality and empowerment what is to be achieved is

far more than what is already accomplished. World Development Report

2012 is on Gender Equality and Development and observed that the pace of

change in gender equality is limited.

Women entrepreneurs of small scale manufacturing industries were

thus, taken for the present study in these contexts of inbuilt gender bias in

the society, innovativeness of entrepreneurship and rapidly changing world

of ideas. The methodology and design pursued in the study is the content of

the present chapter which is organized in eight subtitles viz., (a) genesis of

the problem, (b) statement of the problem, (c) objectives of the study, (d)

research design and hypotheses, (e) method of data collection and analysis

(f) review of literature, (g) scope/limitations and (h) organisation of the

report.

1.1 GENESIS OF THE PROBLEM

The beginning of 21st Century has come with greater turbulations

and lesser stability in every sphere of social life in all countries of the

world bringing changes in social, economic and political environments

rapidly. With the introduction of the liberalization, a new economic

environment has been created where only self-reliant and self-regulated

economic enterprises, including women enterprises, will survive.

Women’s role is very often considered as an important indicator of

the development of any society. In India, women are taking active roles in

all spheres of society at present including economic field. Though their

participation in the informal sector has been increased significantly, the

pace of development depends very much on their presence in education,

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enterprise and institutions, focusing on both individuals and groups.

Women have a tendency to keep away from high-flying economic

activities, which are supposedly regarded as the preserve of men.

Therefore, all efforts of women entrepreneurs need to be lauded for their

increased utilization of modern technology, higher investments, finding a

niche in the export market and creating sizeable employment for others in

the midst of all social taboos and gender discriminations.

Entrepreneurs are considered to be the most important economic

agents for the economic augmentation and growth. They act as the owners,

producers, coordinators, market makers, decision-makers, risk takers and

innovators. They provide improved allocation of resources for innovators

as well as for the best interest of their enterprises and the country. They

are considered as the economic pioneers initiating changes in the economy

to increase productivity and the quality of output through the application of

more efficient production technique, better plant lay-out and effective

marketing policies at the lowest cost. More employment opportunities are

generated and better standard of living is ensured. It is also believed that

without entrepreneurial activities, the process of industrialization is not

possible. Thus they are the dynamic persons for innovation and pace-

setters for economic development.

A successful entrepreneur is a splendid blend of various skills and

attitudes viz., perseverance, hard working, risk-taking ability, high

aspiration, willingness to learn, dynamic and creative nature, adaptability,

innovativeness, good salesmanship, ability to win friends and overcome

crisis, initiative, self-confidence, determination to succeed, pleasing

personality and tactfulness, high integrity, responsibility, excellence in

work and perception to time. In a gender biased society, whether these

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components of capacity and character can be used by women may seem to

be dubious. But society is nowadays realizing that women are equally

capable and have to be promoted for a better future by opening ways for

new women entrepreneurs.

Women in business are growing force in the economy, especially in

the transition environment. Their contribution extends from the economic

intervention to the wider process of social transformation. However, some

countries have deprived women of the paid jobs and social security,

thereby forcing them to find alternative ways of generating income. In this

context, starting a business is one of the options opened to women with

entrepreneurial acumen, shaped by a combination of push and pull factors.

The entrepreneurial functions would help in defining the important

traits of business which in turn could either be improved upon or be

transmitted through teaching and training inputs, provided all other

supports are prevailing adequately. The better understanding of this

complex system in relation to various supporting agencies and institutions

would definitely help improving the interactional part of different

components. The evaluation of different resources and support system

variables would also ease the policy makers and heads of these institutions

to work efficiently in providing latest technical know-how and equipments.

Additionally, it will help the agencies and institutions to mend their

communication as well as working approaches for efficiently delivering the

goods to the clients.

Most of the women entrepreneurs are supposed to take up business

enterprises to tide over financial difficulties. But they are subordinated by

over burden of family work, lack of education and training facilities,

absence of political will, lesser economic options, glaring disparities in

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gender stratification in rural and urban areas, religious and social mores

and taboos, limited access to facilities like credit, market, etc. One

important method to cope up with these challenges is to develop a battery

of competent entrepreneurs. They may help potential entrepreneurs in the

selection of the business according to their competency level, carrying out

the activities within their capabilities and providing all support in getting

required assistance or to overcome the built-in hurdles. In order to harness

their potential, it is necessary to formulate policies and programmes

sustaining their efforts in this direction.

Moreover, there is a growing recognition that the women have

unique talents, that could be harnessed for development and creating

employment opportunities for others. Even though women have to play an

increasingly prominent role in the economic activities in many countries,

they are confronted with increasing pressure from orthodox values and

nonsupportive institutions. In order to utilize the potential and to keep their

growth, it is necessary to formulate strategies suitable for stimulating,

supporting and sustaining the development of women entrepreneurship by

exploring and examining the present state of women entrepreneurs in detail

by serious studies and researches, relevant to various sectors and regions.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Entrepreneurs will not emerge automatically to develop the society

though there may be born entrepreneurs. In majority of the cases,

entrepreneurs are the outcome of the socioeconomic and political

conditions prevailing in the society. Organizations are fostering the needs

of the society and at times social necessity is the mother of entrepreneurs.

Anyhow the difference in degree of development of any region or country

is apparently exhibited in the availability of entrepreneurs. Resources and

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technology are used by successful entrepreneurs for development. By the

dawn of daring entrepreneurs, all clouds of constraints vanish immediately.

Women entrepreneurs are not a rare breed of human excellence.

But their rarity hails from the rare opportunity they get to excel and

establish by overcoming social inhibitions and corresponding ramifications

in all spectrum of polity. Support of the society, institution and

government a male entrepreneur naturally banks upon may not be opened

to a female entrepreneur. March of the humanity from one millennium to

the next opens up new windows of freedom and opportunities to hitherto

underprivileged people and places. Of course women as a deprived group

are also accumulating more and more strength in every age and emergence

of women entrepreneurs herald a new age of women empowerment. The

journey they traversed, hurdles faced and bouquet and brickbats they

received need rapt attention to pilot the path of new generation who

venture into this realm. Origin of women entrepreneurs in various sectors

of the economy is a welcome change which need recognition including

serious studies to enable others to pursue their path and society to offer

necessary support. As such the key issues emerged from the problem of

women entrepreneurs in manufacturing sector were the following.

(a) Whether women entrepreneurs are subject of a study because they are

scarce inputs like male entrepreneurs or not.

(b) Women in general in all societies are subject to neglect and as such

women entrepreneurs also have to face certain gender discriminations

in manufacturing sector also. But apart from scarcity argument and

gender bias inbuilt in all societies, whether the problem posed any

other pertinent issues.

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(c) Selection of manufacturing sector for study was also a deviation from

traditional women enterprises and as such whether their realm was

only papad or garment making or they had stamped their presence in

the state of the art techno-savvy industries/services also had to be

identified.

(d) Neglect of women entrepreneurs and women enterprises were

evidenced by their low representation. It demanded a closer

examination of possible reasons and corrective measures so that

women could contribute directly to the economic betterment of

society. How far studies on women entrepreneurs, especially region

wise and sector wise, can highlight gender bias as a relevant issue to

be explored.

(e) The present state of women entrepreneurs and the process they had

undergone to progress demand prompt perusal to identify the

promoting and preventing factors. How far the existing institutional

and support systems at different levels of society like individual,

family, institutions, governments etc. were women oriented?

(f) Study had to highlight whether women were only camouflage to

cover male heads as real owners or genuinely daring innovators.

Women’s entrepreneurship in manufacturing sector needed to be

studied separately for two basic reasons. The first reason was that women

entrepreneurship had been recognized by the last decade as an untapped

source of economic growth. While women entrepreneurs created new jobs

for themselves and others, they also provided society with different

solutions to management, organization and business problems as well as to

the exploitation of new entrepreneurial opportunities. However, they still

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represented a minority of all entrepreneurs. Thus there existed a policy

failure discriminating against women’s possibility to become successful

entrepreneurs. This failure needed to be addressed by policy makers, so

that the economic potential of this group could be fully utilized.

The second reason was that the topic of women entrepreneurship

had been largely neglected both in society in general and in the sciences.

Not only that women had lower participation rate in entrepreneurship than

men but they also generally chose to start and manage firms in industries

different than men like retail business, garment making, food processing,

education, etc. Women entrepreneurial ventures were subjected to lesser

recognition and examination by assuming them as a subsidiary income

source to family or social prejudice that such firms require lesser skill and

resources. A study of women entrepreneurs could bridge the knowledge

gap regarding the performance of entrepreneurial function by women in the

small scale sector of the region who exercised their skill, values and means

for their enterprises.

As such the problem of the study can be viewed as the present state

of women entrepreneurs in managing their manufacturing units and

adequacy of support they received at different levels of society so as to

know their degree of performance and pinching problems.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Major objectives of the study were the following:

1) To examine the fundamental functions of women entrepreneurs in

organizing and conducting their business enterprises in the

manufacturing sector of Thrissur district in Kerala.

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2) To identify the internal and external factors determining women

entrepreneurship in the selected region.

3) To highlight the institutional and organizational support systems

prevailing to protect and promote women entrepreneurs.

1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND HYPOTHESES

Design of the study was basically descriptive in nature. The very

objective of research was to examine how women entrepreneurs made

meaning of the changes they experienced as a result of starting their own

business by collecting data by open-ended interviews as the primary

source. The framework of the study was designed to study the

characteristics of entrepreneurs, features of their enterprises, level of

performance of entrepreneurial function, internal and external determinants

of entrepreneurship and the network of support systems with their various

inputs for assistance. Demographic variables and family details such as

residency, age of the entrepreneur at the time of start up, marital status,

work experience, family background, economic status, etc. were inquired

with a view to understand the basic characteristics of the respondents.

Research was also designed to examine the determinants of selected

women entrepreneurs in detail such as pull/push factors, facilitators,

motivators, crucial factors, etc. Necessary details on all variables were

collected through the exhaustive interview schedule. All the key variables

like entrepreneurial functions, determinants of entrepreneurship, etc. were

translated into objective parameters to quantify the performance and degree

of influence.

Entrepreneurship is unique and women are ignored but modernity

has showered ample opportunities cutting across all barriers. Therefore it

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was hypothesised that in a fully literate society like Kerala women were

getting equal opportunities and support as their counterparts in initiating

enterprises from government and other institutions. The meagre size of

women entrepreneurs in business might be the reflection of socio-

economic characteristics that affected the willingness and ability of women

entrepreneurs. But it was hypothesized that selected women entrepreneurs

were discharging their functions effectively. The entrepreneurs already

ventured might have definitely perceived their role as an entrepreneur

positively and had satisfaction in the new role with strong internal and

external motivational factors especially from family to start and sustain the

business. Women entrepreneurs of small scale sector might have limited

resources and ambitions but as business people it was presumed that they

might be bold and confident with strong opinion about enterprise

management. It was also assumed that being women, the selected

entrepreneurs had to bring a balance of business and family and as such

might have a perception of their role as entrepreneurs as subordinate to

their role at family.

1.5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Method of data collection and analysis followed in the report are

explained here under various subtitles as (a) sampling methods/selection of

sample units, (b) area of study (c) period of study, (d) sampling method, (e)

key variables and (f) analytical tools.

1.5.1 Sampling Method, Sample Size and Selection of Sample Units

Women units registered with District Industries Centre (DIC) during

1991-92 to 2008 constituted the sampling frame. Addresses of women

industrial units in manufacturing sector were collected from the register of

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DIC. As the government offers a few concessions and subsidies to women

entrepreneurs they had registered themselves with the DIC to avail the

benefits. Hence the database maintained by DIC had been taken as the

source for preparing the population frame of women entrepreneurs in the

district.

Women entrepreneurs which registered under SSI/WIP units and

working in manufacturing sector alone were selected. Multistage Random

Sampling Technique was used for the selection of the sample unit. From

the list of entrepreneurs of five Taluks (Chavakkad, Trichur,

Mukundapuram, Thalapilly and Kodungaloor) of Thrissur District, 40

entrepreneurs each were randomly selected from each taluk. Thus the total

sample size was consisted of 200 respondents. Only those women

entrepreneurs were selected who had been in the business for at least three

years of functioning of the units and satisfied following conditions.

1) all women who were employing their units with one or more than

one employees were considered as women entrepreneurs

2) manage the units independently

3) the units should be at least three year old and registered.

4) excluded self employed single individual units

1.5.2 Area of the Study

As regards the geographical area, the study was conducted among

women enterprises of manufacturing sector in the Thrissur District of

Kerala, South India. Information was collected from 200 manufacturing

enterprises, from a total of 1604 registered women enterprises during 1991

to 2008 with the District Industries Centre (DIC) Thrissur. There are 92

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gram panchayats, six municipalities, five Taluks, and One Municipal

Corporation in the district. The five Taluks are Chavakkad,

Mukundapuram, Kodungaloor, Thalappilly and Thrissur. The important

factor which influenced the selection of Thrissur District was the

familiarity with the study area of the researcher to the women

entrepreneurs and familiarity with the people. These factors made rapport

building and data collection reliable and easy.

1.5.3 Period of study

The primary data were collected from WIP units and SSI registered

units under DIC Thrissur for the period between 1991-92 and 2007-08

based on their performance up to 31st March 2008. Collection of data was

done during the period September 2007 to May 2008.

1.5.4 Sampling Procedure

Data were collected through personal visits to the home and

enterprises of the selected women entrepreneurs, with prior appointments

for their conveniences. In many cases, the prior appointments were fixed

over telephone. Most of them wanted an assurance that the details collected

would not be revealed on to government departments. It was found on field

visit that half of the selected units were non-existent and many of those

which existed, refused to co-operate with the inquiry. Few were found to

be entrepreneurs for the name sake and were not actively involved in

managing the units. Therefore it was necessary to prepare a fresh list of

sample size.

Fresh units of less than three year of functioning were excluded.

Care was also taken to exclude self-employed women who did not generate

employment to others as the present study conceptualized entrepreneurs

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different from a self employed person. Many of the entrepreneurs studied

were found to have diversified other lines of business but most of them did

not have separate building or other infrastructure.

The study was mainly based on primary data. Primary data were

collected for the purpose of analyzing the objectives like factors which

helped to start the enterprises, functions of the enterprise, and the support

systems for women entrepreneurs. These data were collected from women

entrepreneurs spread over five Taluks in Thrissur District.

For the collection of primary data an interview schedule was used.

The interview schedule was prepared keeping in view of objectives of the

study. Besides the interview schedule, personal observations were also

recorded. In addition to this some key persons working in District

Industries Centre were also interviewed for further information. Pretested

structured interview schedule was used to collect primary data.

Secondary data from journals, reports, books, and other published

materials and reports of District Industries Office, Thrissur were also made

available and used. Relevant secondary information and literature had also

been downloaded from appropriate websites in the internet.

1.5.5 Key Variables Selected for the Study

Following are the important variables selected for the study

a) Form of Organization

b) Size of organization

c) Location of the Units

d) Initial Investment and Total investment

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e) Nature of Employees of the Unit

f) Market Strategy

g) Nature of production

h) Critical entrepreneurial Functions

i) Method of Production

j) Degree of involvement in business

k) Type of capital

l) Financial viability

m) Product wise classification

n) Sales turnover

o) Internal and external factors of entrepreneurship

p) Facilitating factors

q) Motivating factors

r) Financial factors

s) Localization factors

t) Crucial factors

u) Institutional support

v) Financial support

w) Family support

x) Loan repayment

y) Decision making and

z) Institutional network

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1.5.6 Analytical Method and Tools

Interview schedule prepared for data collection had four sections.

First section was for collecting the general particulars of women

entrepreneurs like age, religion, marital status, annual family income,

educational status, family structure, information regarding special training

in EDP/MDP undergone and years of experience etc.

Second section was about the enterprise and its functions in

organizing and conducting the business. This measured the performance of

the enterprises. Functions of the women entrepreneurs were classified into

sub sections like, organizing, operational, investment, production,

marketing and financial functions. Organizing functions of the enterprises

studied were analyzed in three major sections. In the first part share of the

entrepreneurs involved in different stages of the development of the

enterprise was calculated. In the second part, entrepreneurs undertaking

different functions like planning, decision-making, risk bearing,

organization and innovation were found. In the last part, average rank for

each functional area, according to their degree of involvement was

computed.

At the end of each functions, questions regarding functional

proficiency were asked to construct functional desirability indices.

Functional proficiency in all six functions were identified by asking yes or

no responses to relevant parameters and functional desirability index was

estimated as percentage share of actual number of positive answers to

maximum potential number of answers. It is equally a sum of actual

positive answers in each parameter obtained as numerator to denominator

as number of statements multiplied by 200 for simple functional index.

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Functional Desirability Index =

x 100 where x is the parameter or

statement, AX is the sum of actual positive score to each parameter Ax1,

Ax2, upto X number of parameters taken and Mx is the maximum potential

score for each statement multiplied by number of respondents (200).

Functional desirability index was classified into five categories based on

percentage of index like (a) excellent (above 90%), (b) very good (70%-

90%), (c) good (50%-70%), (d) satisfactory (40%-50) and (e) poor (below

40%).

Profile of enterprise included year of establishment, product wise

distribution of the enterprise, type of building, type of organization,

schemes under which the unit was established, size of organization and

location of the units. Investment details included initial investment, capital

loan and total capital invested. Production function included sales turn

over, business condition of the unit, method of production, nature of

production and length of time devoted to enterprises. Marketing function

included marketing strategy involved, channels of distribution, degree of

involvement in marketing/sales and promotional method of sales followed.

Entrepreneur’s perception towards their enterprises were also evaluated in

terms of ability to manage the unit, security by becoming an entrepreneur,

change in social status, satisfaction in the present engagement and

preferences in the business than a permanent job. Issues and constraints

related to business of women entrepreneurship were also collected in the

second section.

Major problems faced by the enterprises were identified by

computing average rank for each problem related to marketing, availability

of raw materials, financial problem, power problem, labour problem,

infrastructure problem and problems related to government policies.

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In the third part of the schedule, factors determining entrepreneurial

activity were identified. Factors were classified into pull factors and push

factors, compelling factors, facilitating factors and motivational factors.

Financial factors, non-institutional support factors, factors affecting

localizations and crucial factors for success of the enterprises were also

collected. Data for Entrepreneurial Quotient were collected by asking yes

or no responses to 14 statements regarding character, value and habit.

Competency part of EQ was taken from functional desirability indices.

Fourth part of the schedule was meant for information regarding

support systems of the entrepreneurs. Support information included,

institutional support, family support, social support, etc.

Percentage analysis for each Taluk was done separately which

enabled to identify variations between Taluk and thereby to analyze the

regional situation of women entrepreneur. The factor which has highest

rank is taken as the most influencing factor. Descriptive statistics like

mean, standard deviation and range was worked out for each Taluk for the

variables like investment, loan taken, sales turn over and profit of the unit

in each Taluk. Bar diagrams were also used subsequent to tables at certain

occasions to enable a visual comparison.

Performances of the enterprises were measured in terms of business

conditions of the unit and sales turnover. These two variables were taken as

dependent variable. Major independent variables considered for

performance of the unit were size of the unit and type of the unit. For

comparison of sales turnover with different types of unit, t-test was used.

Association of business condition of the unit with the independent

variables like size and form of business organisation was tested by using

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Chi-square test. Association of institutional support with business

condition of the unit was also measured by using chi-square test.

Major analyses were done with respect to the following areas and

issues.

(i) Changing status of women and women entrepreneurs in India,

Kerala and abroad.

(ii) Present state of small scale industries (MSME) and manufacturing

sector, especially at the state and district levels.

(iii) Socioeconomic characteristics of selected women entrepreneurs in

terms of age, religion, marital status, family income, education,

type of family, etc.

(iv) Basic features of selected enterprises like forms of business

organisation, size of operation, nature of employment and scheme

of assistance.

(v) Functional proficiency of six entrepreneurial functions viz.,

organisational, operational, investment, production, finance and

marketing with more than 15 related issues and 45 objective

parameters. Entrepreneurial type was determined by a combination

of competency, character, value and habit of selected entrepreneur

as daring, innovative, docile, etc. with Entrepreneurial Quotient.

(vi) Opinion about enterprise management and perception regarding

entrepreneurial issues with 20 objective parameters.

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(vii) Internal (push and pull factors) and external (facilitations,

motivation, financial, spatial, societal and crucial factors)

determinants of entrepreneurship.

(viii) Present state of institutional and organisational support systems at

national, state and district levels in the forms of assistance,

awareness, training, etc., to women entrepreneurs, participation of

respondents and their related issues.

(ix) Inter institutional and organisational linkages of agencies working

for women entrepreneurs.

Major tools applied for analyses can be summarised as following.

(i) For the presentation of data, two way tables were mainly used to

explain the status and conditions at present of various variables by

more than 70 tables. Charts and bar diagrams were also used at

times. Percentages, means and rankings gave a relative position of

relevant variables.

(ii) Functional Desirability Indices, Composite Entrepreneurial FDI,

Entrepreneurial Quotient, Opinion Index and Perception Index

were constructed on the basis of assigning score values to objective

parameters to quantify and measure functional proficiencies,

opinion and perception of respondents.

(iii) Chi-square and T-tests were used to find out the degree of

relationship of business conditions and forms of business

organisation with sales and scale of operations.

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1.6 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Women are exercising their entrepreneurial abilities with more

experience and education to face the challenges worldwide. In the light of

such development of women despite numerous constraints, women owned

businesses are becoming increasingly popular and important in the

economies of all countries. The present study is carried out in the area of

women entrepreneurs engaged in manufacturing sector. A review is made

on some of the important works and are divided as (a) factors determining

women entrepreneurs, (b) functions of women entrepreneurs and (c)

support agencies.

1.6.1 Factors Determining Entrepreneurial Activities

Gaikward and Tripathy (1970) in their book, observed that socio-

psychological factors were influencing industrial entrepreneurship in rural

areas. Study was made in the Thanku region of West Godavary District in

Andhra Pradesh. The study evaluated in depth the sociological and

economic factors, which helped this particular area to develop at a faster

rate than the surrounding areas. The study gave valuable insights to the

officials and non-officials working for industrial development and enabled

them to identify the strong points, for such development in particular areas.

Sextan and Kent (1981) reported the results of a study comparing

the characteristics of women entrepreneurs and executives. The study was

conducted on 45 women executives and 48 women entrepreneurs. The

results showed that women entrepreneurs were better educated; they tended

to place a slightly higher emphasis on their job than on their family. The

executives viewed their ability to work with people as the greatest factor in

success, while the entrepreneurs tended to view hard work and persistence

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as more important. Entrepreneurs tended to follow their fathers who were

engaged in business, although they did not acknowledge their fathers as

role models as female executives did not follow their father’s footsteps.

Lalitha Devi in her study (1982) had tried to show that employment

per se as against age, education, family type, place of residence, played a

crucial role in raising the status of women. She had done the analysis of

the status of women within the family, in the office and the wider society.

Employed women had more power and influences in the family and

outside than unemployed women. She had done the analysis of the status

of women within the family, in office and in the wider society. Potential

capacity of women could express itself better when it was used as in

employment which contributed towards making their status high in the

society.

Mohiuddin (1983) made an attempt to study the entrepreneurship

development among women. He found that women became entrepreneurs

due to reasons such as economic needs, challenge to satisfy some of their

personality needs , utilizing the knowledge gained, continuing family

occupation, etc.

Surti and Sarupriya (1983) in their study investigated the

psychological factors affecting women entrepreneurs. They examined the

role of stress, the effect of demographic variables such as marital status and

type of family on stress, and how women entrepreneurs cope with stress.

Results indicated that unmarried women experienced less stress and less

self role than married women. External locus of control was related to

result related to role inadequacy dimensions of stress. While many

respondents used intra-persistent coping styles, i.e., taking action to solve

problems, some resorted avoidance oriented styles of coping.

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Singh and Sengupta (1985) conducted a study on 45 women who

were attending the entrepreneurial development programme held at Delhi

in November–December (1983) organized by NIESBUD, FICCI, and a few

other agencies. The objectives of the study were to determine the

characteristics of women who were on the threshold of starting their

business, to highlight the factors that promoted women to start their own

business and to identify the motivational factors and underlying

psychological forces that led women to become entrepreneurs. The authors

concluded that the profile of women entrepreneurs was not dominated by

either education or lack of it or any other characteristics.

Shah (1987) analyzed the application forms of 300 women who

undertook an entrepreneurship development Programme (EDP) organized

by NISBUD at Delhi, with the purpose of drawing a demographic profile

of different target groups of women entrepreneurs, to find out their

motivations and their behavioral patterns. The conclusions drawn were that

the distinctive features of women entrepreneurs were need for

achievement, self sufficiency in terms of internal and external resource

awareness, initiative taking, problem solving and risk taking. Among the

motives to become an entrepreneur were economic needs, utilization of

own experience ,education, husband’s family’s support and interest,

availability of free time and finance, desire to be independent, and personal

ego and satisfaction of doing something on ones own .

Vinze (1987) in a study of 50 women entrepreneurs of Delhi,

presented an empirical and first hand report about their perception of the

prospects and future of their enterprise, problems faced, their involvement

in the enterprise, and its effects on family life. Data were obtained by

administering detailed structured and guided questionnaire. The analysis

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revealed that all the 50 women entrepreneurs felt that the future prospects

of their enterprises were quite bright. To the query as to which trade or

enterprise had a bright future, all mentioned only those enterprises in which

they were engaged. Only 10 per cent were aware of government

organizations involved in promoting and providing support to

entrepreneurs. Further 40 to 50 per cent of women entrepreneurs did not

know of any institution in Delhi providing entrepreneurial training and

those who knew about such institutions felt that they were very expensive

for new entrepreneurs.

Savitha Sigal and Kamala Srinivasan (1989) made an exploratory

study of the constraints, felt needs and preferences of rural women in

economic development. The study was conducted in a village of Hisar

district in Haryana, and multi-stage random sampling design was used for

the selection of the respondents, treating selection of block as first stage.

Accordingly, a sample of 78 respondents from nuclear families was

selected. The overall picture that emerged was that women lack most of the

essential resources in the form of human as well as material to take up

income generating activity independently.

Anna (1990) in her study proposed to identify the trends of women

entrepreneurship in Kerala in terms of community, occupation, education

and economic status. The intention was to probe into the genesis of

women entrepreneurship and discover the inter-relationship between socio-

economic structures and entrepreneurship. The study was based on primary

data collected from 102 entrepreneurs selected on a random basis,

representing all the 14 districts of the State. A pre-tested interview

schedule was administered to collect the primary data. The study revealed

24

that industrial entrepreneurship among the women of Kerala had emerged

from varied socio-economic, educational and cultural background.

Pillai and Anna (1990), in their study examined the compelling

reasons and stimulating factors which led women to industry. Some of the

conclusions were (a) independent economic status as the foremost ambition

led women to industry. (b) desire to earn money and to engage one fully as

decisive factors, (c) unemployment as the compelling factor that had driven

most of the entrepreneurs to industrial ventures, and(c) encouragement of

the family as the most important factor facilitating entrepreneurship.

Harinarayana Rao (1991) conducted a study with the objective to

assess the factors that impeded and slowed down the process of

entrepreneurial development among women in the backward areas of

Anantapur district of Andhra Predesh. The study was confined to the

campaigns conducted by the District Industries Centre, Ananpur during

1988-98. A brief analysis of the problems impeding the promotion of

grass-root level entrepreneurship among women revealed that more than

any other problem, poor financial status was very critical in the promotion

of entrepreneurship amongst women. Lack of co-operation from the family

and society kept them away from the mainstream of entrepreneurship.

Because of widespread illiteracy and ignorance, the rural women were not

aware of the programmes such a DWACRA, IRDP, TRYSEM, etc. The

study concluded with a few suggestions for the speedy promotion and

development of grass-root entrepreneurship among rural women. Various

skill-oriented programmes such as silk reeling and twisting, book binding,

handicrafts, agarbathi manufacturing, clay moulded articles, beady rolling,

fashion garments etc. were to be organized for women at various manual

headquarters.

25

Lalitha Iyer (1991) made a study of the struggles of women

entrepreneurs and their survival strategies taking the Association of

Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka as an illustrative case. The author

discussed perceptions of society, particularly of men, towards women as

entrepreneurs, perception of women entrepreneurs themselves, and

perceptions of the support system. The author also discussed the conflict

between domestic and entrepreneurial roles, conditioning by social

customs and psychological dependency syndrome, and woman’s attitude

towards money matters. Various other related factors that affected

woman’s existence in business were also discussed, based on the

experiences largely of the office-bearers of AWAKE. The problem of

collateral guarantee, attitudes of financial institutions, working capital

issues and operational procedures were discussed in detail.

Nelson (1991) in his study on small business opportunities for

women in Jamaica, observed that women were in business which required

least capital outlay or which were an extension of household activity like

haircare, dressmaking etc. Most of the women were subject to a perception

of sex-bias and believed that they would be socially ostracized if they were

more assertive as the male entrepreneurs.

Ajit Kanitkar and Nalinee Contractor (1992) highlighted women’s

entrepreneurial ventures in India. Spanning wide canvas across different

economic sectors, regions, income groups, family and educational back

grounds, the book illustrated the riches of women success experience in

good measure. The study involved a qualitative analysis of the case data

and briefly analysed the women’s responses to the problems such as

locating the business, managing employees and other aspects of operations

and expanding the boundary relations.

26

Jothi and Prasad (1993) attempted to derive an accurate profile of

entrepreneurial base among the women of rural India. The findings of the

study revealed a striking difference in the educational background of

women entrepreneurs in general and other women belonging to rural India.

The respondents of this study who hailed from rural areas were found to

have limited education as most of them had only pre-university education.

Social factors like caste, community, and religion were found to strongly

influence the growth of entrepreneurship. Most of the respondents were

from nuclear families. The results revealed no significant relation between

occupational background and entrepreneurial character of the respondents.

Moreover pursuing own interest and earning money emerged as significant

motivating factors. The main reasons which forced them to take up

business activities were growing unemployment and their own inadequate

educational qualifications.

Nazma Ara Hussain (1994) revealed the constraints faced by women

entrepreneurs in relation to their characteristics and the model for success

in entrepreneurship. To make the climate and style of functioning of all

support systems congenial for women entrepreneurship, she suggested that

support agencies should be staffed with female workers. This would help

to improve women entrepreneurs’ success by the support system and

resource system, directly and indirectly.

Srivastava (1994) conducted a study in dyes variety of non-

traditional business activities, and found that women entrepreneurs were

well equipped with education and experience and were highly motivated to

do their business independently and were prepared to face any challenge.

They were fully involved in the business so as to gain and enhance

economic and social status. This was indicative of healthy foundation of

27

small business enterprises with high growth prospects. Given the suitable

and timely infrastructural support by the Government and its various

agencies, small women entrepreneurs could contribute significantly to the

improvement of India’s economy.

Centre for Urban Policy Research Paper (1995) analyzed various

strategies to help the city’s population of poor, female-headed households

.At that time, 54% of all households in the city were headed by women,

and 36% of them lived below the poverty line. Mayor Kurt Schmoke

appointed Awida Marquez to chair this commission. The commission

reached the conclusion that the city’s poor women lacked a range of

resources, including skills, contacts, capital, and support to improve their

economic standing. Women Entrepreneurs in Baltimore was one of the

majorities of U.S. micro enterprise programmers that currently target

women. It was the only micro enterprise programmed operating in the city

of Baltimore at the present time.

Jayasree Amma (1995) examined how far the women entrepreneurs

helped to accelerate total development of Kerala. Women who made one

third of the labor force were vital and productive workers in India's

national economy. It was found that women were both recipients and

contributors to development efforts, due to the engagement of women

entrepreneur in industrial activities and the magnitude of the problems of

discrimination against women was reduced to the minimum. The study

helped to reach the conclusion that the position of women in the Indian

society would have an important impact on future social development.

Majority of the entrepreneurs selected trading type of enterprise and they

had an increasing inclination towards manufacturing and servicing. Their

growth had been quite encouraging now-a-days.

28

Mallika Das (1999) profiled women entrepreneurs who own and

manage small and medium size enterprises in two southern Indian states

via, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The women were classified into three

categories based on their reasons for starting business such as chance,

forced and created or pulled entrepreneurs. The study indicated that there

might be both similarities and differences between the experiences of

women from the developing and developed worlds. Specifically, this study

underscored the difficulties faced by women in getting funds for setting up

business and meeting the working capital requirements. The study also

suggested that there was a rationale for focusing on created or pulled

entrepreneurs, as they seemed to perform better as resulting from the

business skills they possess. Women who were forced into

entrepreneurship also did better than chance entrepreneurs. Hence, it might

be inferred that financial motivations could lead to success in

entrepreneurial activities.

Rajinder Kaur and Shally Bawa (1999) took up an investigation into

entrepreneurship among women by emphasizing the psychological

correlates, especially values and locus of control. The study had been

conducted among a random sample of 100 middle class women

entrepreneurs from Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Kapurthala cities in the State

of Punjab. Only those women who had over three years experience in

business were included in the sample. They were involved in

manufacturing, trading and service enterprises. The study identified the

motivational factors of women entrepreneurship. The findings of the study

were that the more successful among the respondents were found to score

high on ability, utilization, advancement, economic rewards, personal

development and prestige. However, no significant differences in locus of

control were observed among women with varying degrees of success.

29

Priscilla Pue Ho Chu (1999) provided a detailed account of Chinese

industrial Entrepreneurs and described the phenomena of women

entrepreneurship in Hong Kong. It addressed two main issues, viz., (a) the

characteristics of Chinese entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship and (b) the

factors that constituted the making of Chinese women entrepreneurs in

Hongkong. From in-depth personal interviews, Priscilla Chu examined the

characteristic features of Chinese entrepreneurship in general, and female

entrepreneurship in particular, and made a model to summarize the making

of female entrepreneurs in Hong Hong, a model which is significantly

different from that of male and Western counterparts. .

Soundara Pandian (1999) concentrated specifically on the

development of women entrepreneur, the need for women

entrepreneurship, problems faced by them, the existing programmes that

helped women entrepreneurship, the institutions that rented financial

support to women entrepreneurs and suggested and identified areas that

could be established for women entrepreneurs.

Hameja, Bhatia and Saini, (2000) in their study about business

opportunities and attitudes towards support agencies, stated most of the

women entrepreneurs lacked occupational mobility, from one business line

to another. Also, found that there was a lack of information and knowledge

regarding various schemes of assistance launched by the government of

India through various support agencies including those exclusively for

women entrepreneurs.

The study of the Danish Agency for Trade and Industry (2000)

study on the circumstances of women entrepreneurs revealed that the

women’s conception of their motives for starting an enterprises were

different from those of men. Women printed out that their motive was

30

linked to their family, job, and career and did not identify themselves with

the concept of entrepreneur, because in their opinion, entrepreneur was by

definition a man, and this did not fit into the picture they had of

themselves, as women.

Sasikumar (2000) described social factors, credit facilities, gender

empowerment, time management, and institutional support etc, related to

women entrepreneurship in Kerala. The study argued entrepreneurship,

especially in the small sector, involved a lot of personnel and personal

management, in the process of getting things done through other people at

various levels within and outside the unit. The people with whom the

entrepreneur had to constantly interact in the courses of business could be

grouped into three categories, such as (a) the entrepreneur had to motivate,

instruct and lead the employees-right from the manager\supervisor to the

skilled and unskilled worker, (b) to conduct business and to earn profit, the

entrepreneur had to interact with a range of people like customers, partners,

financiers, suppliers, etc and (c) the entrepreneur came across the various

offices and institutions which meant an interface with bureaucrats/officials

at various levels.

Aravinda and Renuka (2001) conducted a study endeavored to

examine the profile of women entrepreneurs, motivational and facilitating

factors, and work home role conflicts faced by women entrepreneurs. The

important factors which motivated the women towards entrepreneurship

were self-interest in that particular area of enterprise and inspiration from

other’s success. The facilitating factors that had an impact in maintaining

the enterprises successfully were self-experience, interest, family’s help

and support. The responses obtained in this study suggested that there was

an absolute need for more entrepreneurship development programmers and

31

support for women. Women entrepreneurs in general faced conflicts in

work and home roles. The main conflicts in work role pertained to

inability to expand the enterprise and optimum utilization of available

skills. Non-availability of time to spend with family and being a good

spouse were the conflict areas faced in the performance of home role. It

might be concluded that women entrepreneurship required a congenial

entrepreneurial climate which motivates and facilitates women to take up

entrepreneurial career.

Brysg and Menzies (2001) examined some derogatory myths about

women entrepreneurs and found most were unsubstantiated. This study

examined the same derogatory myths in relation to a sample of 101 female

and 302 male visible-minority entrepreneurs from three cities in Canada.

Findings showed that “successful” female and male lead entrepreneurs

were quite similar in terms of personal and business characteristics.

Sebastian Titus (2002) indicated that SHGs had helped micro

enterprises by women individually and as groups. The respondents were

raising vegetables in the land commonly owned, ready-made garment

making, developing model farms etc. Even though there were many

hurdles involved in the process of promoting micro enterprises through

SHGs, the attempt was worth while and the sustained efforts by the

government, NGOs and SHGs in the long run could generate a huge

employment opportunities among the rural women and thus could eradicate

poverty among the rural masses.

Zewde and Associates (2002) conducted a study of Women,

Enterprise Development in Ethiopia in two phases. The first phase was a

desk research based study of secondary information covering a wide range

of existing literature of MSE sector in general in Ethiopia and on Women

32

entrepreneurs specially. The desk research set out to review the

importance of the sector, the factors that influenced the growth and

development of MSE, issues for women starting and expanding their

enterprises, as well as identifying certain other issues which might require

further research. The second phase was field-based research conducted in

six regional urban towns of Ethiopia to investigate critical issues raised by

the desk research. The study identified the characteristics, features,

aspirations, motivations, needs and wants of women entrepreneurs in

Ethiopia, with the intention of formulating strategic support interventions

to improve advocacy and their access to services.

Beena and Sushama (2003) revealed some facts about women

entrepreneurs that, the financial return was a very strong motive not only to

start but also to carry on with this enterprise over a period of five years.

These entrepreneurs assured reasonably fair quality in terms of freshness of

vegetables, leafy vegetables and flowers etc, and the price of their products

were low compared to shops and supermarkets. Their enterprises were

customer friendly. They made all efforts possible in taking the product

very close to customers. These entrepreneurs made customers to buy from

their comfort Zone when buying through internet and being at home

instead of going to super market is on an increase.

Pameela Anna (2003) was in the forefront of electromechanical

component manufacturers at the national level and considered there were

no special problems for women in business. “If one tries to gather

comprehensive knowledge of one’s field, difficulties can be avoided,” she

said. Later she joined the company in 1973, and took up the role of leading

the company by appropriate moves in tune with changing market. It was

her leadership that created’ OEN as a model among Entrepreneurs and

33

gave the company the Best Practice Organization citation. However, her

achievements were not limited to the company she headed but the

Chairperson of Kerala State chapter of Federation of Indian Industry,

President of Cochin Chamber of Commerce, member of the governing

body of Kerala State Productivity Council and President of Kerala

Management Association, and also traveled to many foreign countries of

tomorrow’s business.

Supriya and Srinath (2003) in their study explained the factors that

contributed to the failure of small business. The objectives of the study

were to examine the socio-economic background of small-scale

entrepreneurs in selected towns in Tamil Nadu and to investigate the

factors that led to influence entrepreneurship. The findings of the study

were that many of the respondents were tired of their struggle and while

they had got into business with a tremendous sense of self-worth, over the

years there had been erosion. The felt need was to restore the sense of self-

worth.

Bannur (2006) made a case study with the objectives of identifying

factors responsible for the growth of women entrepreneurs in Hubli-

Dharawad industrial area. The results of the study were that woman

entrepreneurs contributed to the industrial development, not only by the

establishment of new enterprises but also by sustenance and expansion of

new as well as existing industrial unit’s sales turnover.

Chitra (2006) explained factors that promoted the women

entrepreneurs in general and particularly in personal care industry. The

study assumed descriptive and exploratory research. Primary data were

collected from thirty five women entrepreneurs on the basis of

convenience. The scope of the study was confined to beauty parlors

34

operated in Coimbatore City. The study brought to light the profile of

women entrepreneurs, profile of the unit, factors influencing

entrepreneurship, critical success factors and the problems of women

entrepreneurs.

Menzies, Gabrielle and Louis Jacques (2006) observed that

derogatory myths about women entrepreneurs could act as a detriment to

women achieving successful business outcomes as male entrepreneurs.

Terri Lituchy, Martha A. Reavt Elena Lvina, Ronald J. Abraira

(2006) presented case studies on women aborigine entrepreneurs in UN

Quebec, Canada. For aboriginal peoples, small business and

entrepreneurship were intimately linked to community and cultural

survival. Within these communities they assumed major roles and were

active participants and leaders in politics and business. The paper

concluded with some suggestions on policy directions to encourage

entrepreneurship in countries that were at different stages of transformation

from aboriginal entrepreneurship as a means of economic development to

self determination and community sustainability.

1.6.2 Functions of Women Entrepreneurs

Sharma (1975) in his study had tried to explore the emerging

patterns of growth of entrepreneurs, their performance and problems. The

study had been conducted to tackle some theoretical and methodological

issues concerned with the analysis of entrepreneurial role of conformity

and to throw light on some applied aspects of entrepreneurial growth in the

State of Uttar Pradesh. The study had shown lack of response of

entrepreneurs to the facilities made available by the government.

35

Usha Rao (1983) in her study had tried to take stock of the existing

positions of women in different regions. Some of the important questions

raised by her were (a) where do our women stand in the great task of

national development, (b) what was the status of the Indian women in the

social, economic, legal, educational, morale and political shapers, (c) how

far our women had progressed in their quest towards equal status and equal

opportunities? Rao had particular interest in women belonging to the

weaker sections.

Seth (1988) conducted an empirical study to explore some

psychological characteristics of Indian women entrepreneurs vis a vis their

non-entrepreneur peers in terms of personality , self concepts, and sex role

orientation .An inverse significant relationship was observed among

women entrepreneurs between sex-role orientation and personality

characteristics such as imagination, cheerfulness, self-assertion, ambition ,

maturity, and integration which implied that women entrepreneurs had

internalized the so-called masculine ideology of imagination, self-assertion,

decisiveness, ambition, maturity and integration. The conclusion drawn

from the findings of the study were that women entrepreneurs differ

significantly from their non-entrepreneurial peers in personality.

Christudas (1992) attempted to analyze whether women could fill

the gap in the short supply of entrepreneurship for the industrial

development of Kerala. The descriptive analysis showed the types of

enterprises best suited for the industrially backward Kerala, particularly for

the Trivandurm district. From the empirical study of the industrial

enterprises owned and operated by women in the Trivandrum District we

came to know that women were interested not in the expansion of market

for the existing products. Their capacity to undertake minimal risk

36

permitted them neither large scale business nor medium scale. Usually

their role as entrepreneurs was tied up with small-scale manufacturing

activity. The study revealed the fact that they were keen to get quick

profits and were unwilling to undertake projects having long gestation

periods.

Anju Deepak (1993) said that empirical studies on entrepreneurship

had focused on the emergence of male entrepreneur but not much work had

been done on subjects with special reference to women entrepreneurs. This

might be attributed to the fact that as far as entrepreneurship was concerned

there was no specific difference between men and women entrepreneurs.

The study found that women entrepreneurs held high expectancies for

values like utilization, achievement, personal growth and creativity. Since

these were intrinsic in nature, women entrepreneurs saw their business as a

central integrating force where the job content became a source of

enrichment, creative effort and self actualization. Women must be taking

up entrepreneurship as a career to attain a sense of self-fulfillment.

Sudha 1996) studied women entrepreneurs in small scale industries

in Kollam District to analyze the origin and growth in a historical

perspective. The study tried to provide a better understanding of the

socioeconomic background of women entrepreneurs. A concrete analysis

of the different factors motivating them to start industries had also been

undertaken on the basis of empirical data. Some specific indices of

economic viability of the units had been worked out and certain problems

facing women as entrepreneur were studied. This was an exploratory study

based on sample survey. Since secondary source of information was

insufficient to explain the different aspects to women entrepreneurs,

relevant primary data had been collected from 15 selected women

37

entrepreneurs and 15 men entrepreneurs for a comparative analysis. The

conclusion of the study was that both owned and borrowed capital were

higher in the units of men entrepreneurs than women.

Gregory Ericksen (1999) concentrated on 12 women entrepreneurs

who told the stories of their success. This book reflected the variety

and range of women with a business of their own. They demonstrated that

the world of business was, by no means a man’s world, but a world in

which customers rule and products and services reign over the fortunes of

companies. The entrepreneurs represented in this cross section had not

only succeeded in areas traditionally considered as a woman’s domain, but

also in areas traditionally considered as male territory. The women profiled

in this book epitomized the top 10 characteristics of successful

entrepreneurs.

Manimala (1999) suggested that policies and strategies were

important variables in determining entrepreneurial performance. The

success was a matter of chance and one needs some luck. This was true,

but it was also possible to shape luck by building networks, by exercising

parsimony of investment, by seeking competitively insulated riches by

moving incrementally and by continually monitoring performance.

Jean Lee Sinew Kim Coho Sow Ling (2001) in an article

emphasized women’s basic role as that of mothering, and found working

women faced role struggle .As married working woman, many women

entrepreneurs had to assume multiple roles in the family in addition to

their careers .They must bear major responsibility for household chores

and childcare. These responsibilities gave rise to work – family conflict,

which became an obstacle in managing their business. This research

studied the work- family conflict among married Singapore women

38

entrepreneurs. The work- family conflict was divided in to three parts job-

spouse conflict, job-parent conflict and job home maker conflict. The data

for this study came from 102 married Singapore women entrepreneurs.

There was a need for greater spouse support, flexible work schedule, and

full-day school in order to alleviate work family conflict. Good marital

relation was important in reducing spouse conflict and increasing

wellbeing in women entrepreneurs.

Susan (2001) made a study on women entrepreneurs in Ernakulum

District, to examine the socio-economic background of women

entrepreneurs in the rural and urban areas of the particular area. And also

analyzed the factors motivated the women entrepreneurs to start new

ventures, functions and the constraints faced by women entrepreneurs in

the selected area.

Ganesan (2003) conducted a study on Status of women

entrepreneurs in India and suggested remedial measures that would

contribute to greater success rate among women entrepreneurs. The data

were collected from women entrepreneurs spread over 10 districts of

Thailand. The findings revealed that the entrepreneurs who survived for

more than five years, retained their turnover position, on the face of the

market oriented problem introduced by economic liberalization which was

ongoing during the survey period. Mover over the major reason

contributing to the failure or stagnation of majority of women

entrepreneurs was the difficulty they face as women.

Istanbul (2004) studied women’s entrepreneurship in the economy

from an Austrian economic perspective and analyzed the characteristics of

women’s entrepreneurship and offered a set of policy recommendations. .

As low rates of women’s entrepreneurship were both related to the status of

39

women and the status of entrepreneurship, they had suggested that

increasing the abilities of women to participate in the labor force and

generally to improve the position of women in society would increase the

possibility to engage in entrepreneurship in central. However, more

targeted initiatives were also needed to support women entrepreneurs and

would be entrepreneurs.

Maria Beaver (2004) revealed an interesting fact about Bulgarian

Women Entrepreneurs who were citing the limited interior market and to

succeed they had to look for other opportunities to sell their production. In

addition, foreign market created condition for establishing new links and

joint ventures with companies from the developed countries as well as for

fund raising to enlarge their activities and to introduce new technologies.

Social attitudes towards entrepreneurship were a part of the business

environment and important to women entrepreneurs.

Bhatia (2005) suggested that any understanding of Indian women,

their identity, their role taking and breaking new paths, would be

incomplete without a walk down the corridors of Indian history where

women had paused, lived and internalized various role models. Some had

taken entrepreneurship roles where some had opted for employment, some

in entertainment field and some for leadership roles while millions of

others had taken the role of ideal stereotyped social roles. The paper slided

from the era of fifties to the 21 st century and how transformation had

occurred in the women roles. Also the paper talked about the status of

women entrepreneurs, and the problems faced by them when they ventured

out to carve their own niche in the competitive world of business

environment.

40

Browse (2005) explained women entrepreneurship had a

tremendous potential in empowering women and transforming society. Yet

this potential remained largely untapped in South Asia, with less than 10 %

of the entrepreneurs being women. This paper reviewed some of the issues

concerning women entrepreneurship in South Asia, considered good

practices for developing women entrepreneurs and provided an overview of

some of the initiatives in South Asia to promote Women Entrepreneurs.

Nirmala (2005) addressed the issue of the role IT could assume in

the enlistment of the socio-economic status of women and empowering

women entrepreneurs in the rural areas of Pondicherry, based on data

collected from a random sample of 200 women entrepreneurs during 2002.

It also surveyed the problems encountered and suggestions made by the

sample respondents to improve their business performance. It was

concluded that above all reaping the benefits of IT called for familial and

governments support, accompanied by political will and commitment, it

was needed to ensure higher literacy level to overcome the communication

barriers.

Friederike Welter, David, Small Bone and Nina B. Isakova (2006)

examined changing role of females in centrally planned into market

economies. It presented recent research findings on women doing business

in different transition environments. It included examples from countries

that were different in historical background, the pace of market reforms

and cultural distinctiveness, performed in more progressive countries, in

terms of market reforms, (Slovenia and Lithuavia), less fortunate States

(Ukraine & Moldova), two Central Asian Countries, and the specific case

of East Germany.

41

According to Hisham Tashkendi (2007) by the Two Holy Mosques

King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz, since its foundation in 2005, had funded

hundreds of young Saudi entrepreneurs to start their own businesses. The

total number of men initiating projects stood at 426, and the rest of the 104

were women. Financial aid was provided to applicants based on merit. The

study estimated the total number of workers in the kingdom at 8,024,885

including 6,780,550 men.

Mehdi Hassan (2007) said an export house was be established in

Pakistan to help small and medium entrepreneurs, particularly women for

appropriate marketing of their goods all over the world and to end the role

of middleman. The export house would be a private limited company but

funded by government and run on no-profit and no-loss basis under TADP.

Santha (2007) observed that most of the women entrepreneurs in

Kerala and Tamil Nadu were enjoying a very high social and economic

status after becoming entrepreneurs. Both states were about to achieve a

growth of 100 percent and more in the total assets, annual income and

annual savings, etc. But significant differences were found in their annual

sales, income, expenditure and annual savings. The major service utilized

from the government agencies by the women entrepreneurs in both the

States was training. Most of the respondents in Kerala attended PMRY

training, whereas it was EDP training in Tamilnadu. Their repayment

record was excellent, the study reported. The majority of the women

entrepreneurs in both the States approached public sector banks for

financial assistance. However, they had not much awareness about the

financial institutions\lending schemes.

Saikou E, Sanyang and Wen-Chittuang (2008) found that Women

represented about 40% of the total labor force in Taiwan. The majority of

42

women employment was concentrated in manufacturing and service sector

such as commerce and social or personal community work. Small and

medium enterprises in Taiwan accounted for 97.8% of the total enterprises

and employed about 78% of the total work force. Small and medium

enterprises had played a crucial role in economic development of Taiwan.

There was also lack of sufficient research on women’s role in small and

medium enterprise development. Women owned small and medium

enterprises in Taiwan and 81.6% of the women employers employed 2-9

persons and 13.2% employed 10-29 persons. This paper proved that many

women employers owned larger firms that employ up to 200-499 persons,

suggesting that women entrepreneurs were capable as men in running

business. The findings also suggested that women in middle ages, between

mid-30s and mid-40s, were more likely to set up their own businesses.

Andrea E. Smith Hunter, Suithna Mboko (2009) used an

entrepreneurship framework to study female entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe.

The study sought to explain strategy processes employed by Zimbabwean

female small business owners, and to establish the link between the

strategy processes and firm outcome. The research used interviews to

collect data, using a case study method approach, which directed the

interview process. The analysis focused on meanings and interpretations of

the data collected. The findings suggested that a strategic approach to

managing small firms was necessary for firm growth. The research was

carried out during a period of economic turbulence in Zimbabwe, which

might have influenced the entrepreneurs' assessment of appropriate

approaches to operating their businesses. The overall conclusion was that

Zimbabwean female business owners had strong entrepreneurial

competence but lack the ability and support to develop their firms to their

full potential. The findings had implications for policy makers who need to

43

put in place measures to improve female entrepreneurs' managerial

competence.

Alivelu, Srinivasulu, Gopinath Reddy (2009) attempted to enquire

into the politics of state-business relations (SBR), how it had affected

industrial development in general, and expansion of the manufacturing

sector in the State of Andhra Pradesh (AP) in particular. In AP, SBRs had

evolved gradually under different political regimes - from 'indifferent'

SBRs during the initial decades passing through critical junctures in the

form of 'active' and 'proactive' phases and finally reaching their zenith

during Chandrababu Naidu’s regime and continuing in the Congress

regime. The SBRs in AP were seen evolving through different political

regimes, and sought to capture their impact of the performance of

manufacturing sector, based on both qualitative and quantitative sources.

Examination of the secondary data revealed the dominance of registered

manufacturing in AP’s total manufacturing output. Firm level perceptions

revealed that business associations played a major role in the dissemination

of information, rather than in lobbying the government as might be the case

in other states. Small firms were at a disadvantage compared to large and

medium firms.

1.6.3 Institutional and Organizational Support

Pareek (1978) highlighted the problems of small scale industries

with particular reference to finance brought home to the readers an analysis

of the capital structure of 181 small scale units of different capital bases

belonging to various industrial groups. The study reviewed the role of

financial institutions and state agencies in extending credit to small scale

industrial units and pin-pointed their attitude of indifference in catering to

the needs of the tiny units. The main thesis of the author was that the

44

financial institutions had to tune their lending policies in consonance with

the needs of the small-scale sector in general and the smaller among the

small scale in particular.

Mathew (1985) made an analysis of women’s employment in

Kerala, to examine the changing strategies of exploitation inherent in the

employment of women’s labour in the industrial sector in Kerala state and

to analyze the socio-political forces operating behind them. The paper was

divided into three sections viz., (a) the first section attempted to examine

certain broad theoretical aspects of women’s employment, (b) the second

one dealt with certain emerging trends in the structure of employment in

Kerala and in the country and (c) the third section dealt with the modus

operandi of gender-based exploitation of labor under changing

environment and institutional framework.

Shailaja Devi (1987) observed that the women entrepreneurs were

from well to do families and had influential social and political

connections. They were educationally qualified also. The impact of

financial and technical assistance on the growth of women entrepreneurs

was significant. Fresh capital supplied by partners or personal saving did

not constitute an important source of funds. The units did not have any

serious production problems and the entrepreneurs did not take any outside

help for running their units.

Shanta Kohli Chandra (1991) in her study had discussed public

policies and programmes affecting women entrepreneurs. She had

suggested in her study that government must analyze the current status and

potential role of women in the process of industrialization with a view to

bring positive change which would result in sharing responsibilities and

benefits by both sexes. She had further stated that effective and adequate

45

legislation for social facilities, health provisions, maternity and social

security benefits would enhance the process of women’s involvement in

the development process of the country.

Deka, Phan and Baruah (1992) established that women were as

much endowed with entrepreneurial talents as men, admitting in the same

breath that the number of women engaged in self employment was very

low. The reasons for this paradox in the context of the north-eastern region

of India were no concerted efforts for development of women

entrepreneurship till mid, 1980s. In fact, one of the major constraints in the

economic development of the North Eastern Region was the limited

number of highly motivated entrepreneurs, in spite of the vast natural

endowments and a series of incentives, subsidies and other economic

benefits offered by the state and central governments. One of the

fundamental challenges faced by women entrepreneurs were in the realm

of self-environment.

Singh Kamala (1992) described with the help of statistical analysis

the linkages and communication patterns between various supporting

agencies and institutions and women entrepreneurs. Stating that

entrepreneurship comprised four sub-systems, vessel-sphere, socio-psycho

dynamics, resource base, and support system, the author defined a women

entrepreneur as a confident, innovative and creative women capable of

achieving economic independence individually or in collaboration, who

generates employment opportunities for others through initiating,

establishing and running an enterprise by keeping pace with her personal,

family and social life The main finding of the study was that business

world was mainly dominated by men, the women entrants into this arena

face serious constraints such as lack of awareness of government

46

coordination between different agencies, and long and complicated

procedures to avail of the incentives offered by them.

Anjali Mehta (1993) provided the profile of women entrepreneurs of

Ahmedabad city. According to her study the women entrepreneurs

appreciated the training programmes conducted by CED but were little

unhappy about its lack of substantial follow-up action. Further, a bank

financing had been found to be an important formidable barrier. Moreover,

the paperwork was found fabulous, and the procedural work was unending.

The third major area of difficulty was with the inability of women to

operate freely in male-dominated business world, though some of the

women entrepreneurs were greatly appreciated by their male counterparts

and society at large. The major part of women entrepreneurs belonged to

the garments and domestic product category (23%) while 5 percent were in

professional service in a sample of 41 entrepreneurs. The remaining 13

percent had ventured into novel fields ranging from printing (2), making

loud speakers (1) to diamond cutting (1) etc.

Cherian (1994) conducted a study on the performance of SSI Units

in Kollam District and examined whether the business and family

background of the entrepreneurs played a significant role in the

performance of their enterprise in relationship with the exposure to EDP

training. The EDP training was positively associated with the development

of women entrepreneurship. The performance of the units of EDP trained

women entrepreneurship was much better than the performance of the units

of untrained women entrepreneurs. The extent of family supports in

running the units of women entrepreneurship, both trained and untrained,

also was very high. Hence, the EDP training could be fruitfully employed

as a strategy to improve the operational efficiency of the Units and to raise

47

the status of women in the society. There was great potential at least for a

few units under study to expand their volume of business. Expansion of

profit making units accelerated the rate of industrialization and reinforced

the confidence of prospective entrepreneurs.

A very important study related with the topic on training issues

regarding women in micro and small business was done by Awori Thelma

(1995) in Africa. The study revealed that systematic entrepreneurial

training for women was still at its infancy in the continent. However,

women were segregated into three types, the training for low income

women, training for women who were already entrepreneurs and training

for trainers.

Sarnagadharan and Resia Beegam (1995) undertook a study to

assess the institutional support provided to women entrepreneurship in

India in general and Kerala in particular. The problems confronted by the

women entrepreneurs in Kerala, engaged in various industrial\business

activities were shortage of working capital and high rates of interest

charged by banks. Traveling a long distance for procuring raw materials

were also inconvenient for the women entrepreneurs.

Aparajita and Nayan Barua (1998) said that constant endeavour to

bring in hidden talents of the entrepreneurs of the North-Eastern Region

was worth mentioning. Then the women entrepreneurs of the region

needed special attention as it had been observed that only a fraction of the

trained women entrepreneurship came to the real world of business. The

other part enjoyed such programmes as a pass time only without any

followed action. In this context, monitoring cells were needed to be setup

by State governments of the region to assist and guide all types of women

entrepreneurs in finding financial assistance.

48

Until recent times in Ireland, entrepreneurship education, training

and development programmes had been gender neutral. Common

criticisms of such programmes were that they tend to be male dominated

and dismissive of women (Carter, 2000). These programmes were

frequently “start your own businesses” courses which, in the main, cater

for service type industries and micro-enterprises rather than for growth

oriented businesses. The current research showed that the level of women

entrepreneurs engaging in incubation type programmes, and/or

entrepreneurship programmes geared for high-growth, high-tech sectors

was still less than 10%. However, contrary to previous research on female

entrepreneurs in growth businesses and female entrepreneur’s attitudes

towards growth, this research had shown that a significant 82% of women

in businesses considered to be growing and 74% of women in business in

the region expressed a desire to grow their businesses further.

Krishnan Embram (2003) conducted a study on women

entrepreneurship in Kerala and explained the growth of women in the

entrepreneurial sector and institutional network and promotional measures

that supported the women entrepreneurs. The study also highlighted the

real factors responsible for the poor conditions of women entrepreneurs

and evaluated the functioning of women entrepreneurs. Mover over the

study undertook real problems which led to the high rate of sickness and

mortality among women enterprises.

Natarajan and Kavitha (2003) in their study focussed the importance

of the competencies of women entrepreneurs and suggested appropriate

measures to improve the competencies of the women entrepreneurs. The

findings of the study revealed that there was no significant difference in the

overall competencies of the women entrepreneurs belonging to different

49

age, education, experience, location, status and nature of operation with the

entrepreneurial activities. In addition to their inability to adjust the family

problems, other issues were inadequate knowledge on competitor’s

strategies, legal aspects of business, public relations, inability to access

financial assistance, lack of knowledge about various incentives schemes

etc.

Raju (2003) concentrated on women entrepreneurship through

DWCRA scheme. The scheme helped the women entrepreneurs in

increasing knowledge as they had been provided with opportunities of

participation in various trades. Other women in rural areas should be

encouraged to participate in these programmes, so that they also could gain

more knowledge about different trades and become self-employed.

Problems were part and parcel of any venture. This scheme was no

exception. Strenuous efforts should be made to address them effectively.

In this task the following suggestions were put forwarded for government

and non-government organizations responsible for promoting and

developing entrepreneurship amongst women, viz., active policy

intervention for better infrastructure, adequate finance, better marketing

etc, to enhance women’s motivation and involvement in job, thus leading

entrepreneurs to challenge traditional and stereotyped ideas of women’s

potential and role.

Sarada (2004) attempted to develop a stress model, conceptualizing

work as a combination of both homework and organizational work. It

studied work stress emanating from the role system composed of multiple

roles of women, generating different kinds of work that acted as sources of

stress that demanded abilities and skills of women to cope with stress.

50

Attempt should be done to generate various interventions focusing on

empowering women to manage stress.

Aparajeeta and Nayan Barua (2005) examined the role of support

organizations in marketing entrepreneurial services to women and also the

entrepreneurial culture and application of EDP training among EDP trained

women entrepreneurs and their comparative position with the non-trained

women entrepreneurs. Among the women a few had reported to have taken

follow up steps. The trained women preferred and sold through own retail

outlets. There were more trained female urban entrepreneurs than the rural

entrepreneurs.

Lalitha (2005) conducted a case study of women entrepreneurs of

self help groups and also made an attempt to study the experiences of

successful entrepreneurs which would motivate the prospective

entrepreneurs. The findings of the study revealed that ten members from

two SHGs in Uchanampatty were engaged in the activity for the past seven

years successfully as a part-time activity. Support from the self help

institutions, group dynamics, self confidence, hard work and determination

of the group members and selection of enterprises based on demand were

the factors which contributed to the success of SHGs in promoting

enterprises.

Asha Patil and Anuradha Mathu (2007) stated the problems faced by

women entrepreneur and importance of training and institutional support

for women empowerments and confidence to overcome constraints of

women entrepreneurs.

Femida Handy, Bhagyashree and Meenz Kassam (2007) opined that

entrepreneurial activity attracted certain kinds of individuals, whether it

51

was to promote a social cause in the nonprofit sector or profit sector. This

article looked at the behavior of women entrepreneurs in India in both the

for-profit and nonprofit sectors to test for potential differences and

similarities. They chose two groups of entrepreneurial women who

founded and led relatively similar-size organizations in the same city and

who provided services primarily to women and children. Their findings

showed that while all nonprofit entrepreneurs received a high payoff from

promoting social causes, there was no single unifying payoff for for-profit

entrepreneurs. Family background and support, however, played an

important role for both sets of entrepreneurs. They found that experience

in the sector, social class, caste and education influenced entrepreneurial

behavior and that this influence differed by sector.

Vasanthagopal (2008) dealt with various dimensions of women

entrepreneurship in India. He also explained the experience of other

countries. Moreover detailed explanations of government agencies

promoting women entrepreneurship at national, state level and

International agencies promoting women entrepreneurship were also given.

The review of literature presented here reveals that research on

women entrepreneurship as such is scarce and scattered with only a few in-

depth studies of a limited nature. It also reveals that there is wide scope

for research on women entrepreneurship in manufacturing sector in

developing countries like India. However the factors and forces

determining entrepreneurship are highlighted, especially the family

background, government policies, institutional support etc. Though

personal attributes are very important in entrepreneur, market forces are

equally applicable in deciding the future of enterprise. Women capable of

acquiring or inheriting entrepreneurial acumen who are associated with

52

adequate institutional\policy support have more chance to win. Review has

enabled to list entrepreneurial requirements more than the methodology of

study.

1.7 SCOPE /LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Study of women entrepreneurs always create much curiosity and

interest to unravel the activities of the fair sex in business world.

Endearing environment for the entry of women entrepreneurs is a clarion

call for the economic independence of a neglected group. Simultaneously

it augments the exchequer of the economy. As such the present study of

women entrepreneurs had looked into all the functions discharged by

women as entrepreneurs. Role of relevant institutions and organisations

like government, non government, family, friends, associates, etc. in

influencing women entrepreneurs were also highlighted to measure the

support they got to manage their enterprises. The study had attempted in

measuring the level of functional efficacy by classifying entrepreneurial

functions into six and identifying minimum of six objective parameters for

every function for measurement. Functional Desirability Index and

Entrepreneurial Quotient could thus, provide necessary informations to

objectively examine the degree of performance of entrepreneurial

functions.

Though women constitute half of the population, their participation

in various activities are either underestimated or unrewarded in general.

The realm of business enterprise is also not an exception to this. Though

Kerala is a developing society, business enterprises are limited in number

due to its special nature of developmental shift from agriculture to service

sector directly with modest presence in industries. When women

entrepreneurs were taken for study, the scope was limited by a host of

53

gender related parameters. The study examined women entrepreneur’s

capabilities in carrying out various entrepreneurial activities. The

entrepreneurial avenues are wide and varied. Therefore the study had

focused only in manufacturing sector. It will be helpful for the new

women entrepreneurs entering into the field of enterprises and pointers to

policy makers to undertake appropriate programmes and packages to

promote women entrepreneurs.

Scope of the study was limited to Thrissur district of Kerala State as

study region. Self employed individual entrepreneurs and enterprises with

less than three years of experiences were also excluded from the study.

The result may not be generalized as such. All the aspects of women

entrepreneurship were not covered in this study like constraints of

entrepreneurs as females to overcome hurdles, limitations, inadequacies

and competition. Non-manufacturing units were excluded. Focus of the

study was always the entrepreneurs than their enterprises. Moreover,

majority of the entrepreneurs surveyed were operating on small and micro

units. They did not have the practice of maintaining proper set of records

on the performance of their business. Some of them were naturally

hesitant to give details of their turnover, profits, or other financial matters

either because of fear to disclose such details or lack of interest in such

interviews. Some of the entrepreneurs provided data from their memory.

There was no way of verifying the veracity of the data provided by them in

such cases. DIC Thrissur also did not maintain detailed records of women

entrepreneurs in the district.

1.8 ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT

The report is organised in five chapters. Chapter one deals with

research methodology and design which explained statement of the

54

problem, objectives, methodology, scope/limitations of the study, review of

literature and scheme of the study. Second chapter gives a theoretical

perspective of women entrepreneurs and a profile of the manufacturing

sector in India/Kerala. The analysis parts are given in the next two

chapters and the fifth and final chapter presents summary of findings and

conclusions of the study. Bibliography and Annexures have followed the

last chapter.

Selected References

(a) Factors Determining Entrepreneurial Activities

1. Gaikward and Tripathy R.N, (1970). Socio-Psychological factors

influencing Industrial entrepreneurship in rural areas, a case study in

Tanuka region of West Godavari, A.P. Hyderabad. SEDME 304, pp.

13-16.

2. Sexton and Kent, (1981). Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, Hall

Englewood Cliffs, Prentice, pp. 81-90.

3. Lalitha Devi, (1982) “Status and Employment of Women in India”,

B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, p.186.

4. Mohiuddin Asghari (1983). “Retrospect’s among Women”,

SEDME, Entrepreneurship Development, pp. 18-22.

5. Surti K. and Sarupriya D (1983). "Psychological Factor Effecting

Women Entrepreneurs”, Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol.III,

pp. 440-442.

55

6. Singh N.P and Sengupta, (1985), Potential women Entrepreneurs:

Their profile, Vision and Motivation: An Exploratory Study,

Research Report Serial One, NIESBUD, New Delhi, pp. 112-120.

7. Shah Hina (1987). “Fostering Entrepreneurship: A Study of

Distinctive Women Features”, Research Report Serial three, New

Delhi, NIESBUD, pp. 78-80.

8. Vinze, Medha Dubhashi (1987), “Women Entrepreneurs in India”,

Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p.91.

9. Savitha Singal and Kamala Srinivasan (1989), “An exploratory

study of the Constraints", Indian Journal of Training and

Development, Vol.19, pp. 221-223.

10. Pillai NC and Anna V (1990). "The Entrepreneurial Spirit among

Women-A Study of Kerala”, Indian Management, Nov. Dec. pp.86-

90.

11. Anna V (1990). Women entrepreneurship in Kerala, PhD thesis,

Department of Economics, Cochin University and Science and

Technology, Cochin, p.18.

12. Harinarayaba Rao C (1991), “Promotion of Women

Entrepreneurship: A Brief Comet”, SEDME, Vol. 18(2), pp.90-99.

13. Lalitha Iyer, (1991), “Women Entrepreneurs: Challenges and

Strategies”, Friedrich Ebert Sifting, New Delhi, pp. 87-89.

14. Nelson Bloaom O’ Meally, (1991), Small Business Opportunities

for Women in Jamaica, SEDME, Vol.17, pp. 90-99.

56

15. Ajith Kanitkar and Nalinee Contractor, (1992), The women

entrepreneurs of India, Entrepreneurship Development Institute of

India, Ahamedabad, p. 47.

16. Jothi V and Prasad G (1993), “A Profile of Potential Rural Women

Entrepreneurs”, SEDME, Vol. XX, p.2.

17. Nazma Ara Hussain (1994), “Women Entrepreneurs in a Poverty

Ridden Society - A Case Study of Bangladesh”, Women in

Management Champions of Change, Khair Jahan Sogra (Ed),

University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp.32-34.

18. Srivastava RM (1994), "Emerging Profile of Small women

Entrepreneurs cum Managers in India - A Case Study, "Woman in

Management Champions of Change, Khair Jahan Sogra, (Ed),

University Press Ltd, Dhaka, Bangladesh, p. 69.

19. CUPR (1995), “Women Entrepreneurs of Baltimore”, Micro

Enterprise Development as an Economic Adjustment Strategy,

Centre for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, pp. 77-79.

20. Jayasree Amma (1995), "Women Entrepreneurship in Kerala, A

case study of Alappuza District, University of Kerala, Trivandrum,

p. 20.

21. Priscilla Pue Ho Chu (1999), The Phenomena of Women

Entrepreneurs in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, The City University

Press, Hong Kong, p. 14.

22. SoundaraPandian (1999), Women Entrepreneurship Issues and

Strategies, Kenosha Publishers, New Delhi, p. 14.

57

23. Rajinder Kaur and Shally Bawa (1999), “Psychological Correlates

of Entrepreneurial Performance among Women”, The Journal of

Entrepreneurship, Vol.8, No.2, p.51.

24. Mallika Das (1999), "Women Entrepreneurs of Southern India: An

Exploratory Study”, The Journal of Entrepreneurship, Vol. 2, p. 66.

25. Bhatia .B.S, Dhameja S.K, Saini J.S. (2000), Women Entrepreneurs

Their Perceptions about Business Opportunities and Attitudes

Towards Entrepreneurial Support Agencies, Punjabi University,

Patiala, December, pp. 51-52.

26. Sasikumar (2000), “Women Entrepreneurship”, Vikas Publishing

House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

27. Schultz Grafisk (2000), Danish Agency for Trade andIndustry,

Danish, Electronic edition by Schultz Grufisk, p. 17.

28. Brysy and Menzies (2001), "Women Entrepreneurs - An

Exploratory Study", SEDME, Derogatory Myths about Women

Entrepreneurs, p. 91.

29. Aravinda .S, Renuka (2001), "Women Entrepreneurs", International

Journal of Ideas, Third Concept, March Vol. 120, p. 22.

30. Sebastian Titus (2002), "Promotion of Women Entrepreneurs

through SHGS, Khadigramodyog", The Journal of Rural Economy,

November, pp. 69-70.

31. Zewde and Associates, (2002), "Gender, Women’s Enterprise

Development in Ethiopia”, ILO, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, No.18,

p.11..

58

32. Supriya M.V, Srinath T.T (2003), “Perceptions of Small Scale

Entrepreneurs In Tamil Nadu Regarding Successful And

Unsuccessful Qualities of Entrepreneurs", SEDME, September, pp.

200-201.

33. Pameela Anna Mathew (2003), Among Business Leaders of Kerala,

OEN India Limited, Ernakulum, October, p. 1.

34. Beena C. and Sushama B. (2003), “Women Entrepreneurs

Managing Petty Business: A Study from Motivational Perspective,”

Southern Economist, May, Vol 42, pp. 5-8.

35. Bannur, BC. (2006). "Problems and Prospectus of Women

Entrepreneurs in Hubli-Dharwad, Industrial Estates-A Case Study”,

International Journal of Ideas, Third Concept, January, Vol. 119, No

227, pp. 56-58.

36. Menzies, Gabrielle and Louis, (2006). “Derogatory Myths about

Women Entrepreneurs, Canada", Paper published in Management

International Spring, ISSN.0840-853X, Vol.10, p. 83.

37. Terri. R. Lituchy, Martha A. Reavley, Elena Lvina, Ronald J.

Abraira, (2006), “Success factors of Aboriginal Women

Entrepreneurs", International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small

business, Vol. 3, No.6, p.121.

(b) Functions of Entrepreneurs

1. Sharma.K.L, (1980), “Entrepreneurial Growth and Development

Programmers In Northern India: A Sociological Analysis”, New

Delhi, pp. 101-102.

59

2. Usha. Rao (1983), “Women in a Developing Society”, Hashish

Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 180.

3. Seth Salma (1988), “Psychological Characteristics of Indian Women

Entrepreneurs an Empirical Study” Unpublished Masters

Dissertation, University of Delhi, New Delhi, p. 7.

4. Christudas (1992), "Performance of Women Entrepreneurs in

Trivandurm District", Ph.D. thesis, Dept of Economics, University

of Kerala, Trivandrum, Kerala, p.18.

5. Anju Deepak, (1993), “Value Orientations among Women

Entrepreneur”, Asian Entrepreneur, pp. 16-19.

6. Sudha S (1996), “Performance evaluation of women entrepreneurs

in Small Scale industries in Kollam District” M.Phil. thesis, p. 111.

7. Manimala, Mathew J. (1999), "Entrepreneurial Policies and

Strategies - the Innovators Choice, Sage Publications, New Delhi,

pp. 83-88.

8. Gregory K. Ericksen, (1999), “Women Entrepreneurs Only” 12

Women Entrepreneurs Tell the Stories of their Success, pp. 8-10.

9. Jean Lee Siewkim, Choo Seow Ling, (2001). “Work –family

conflict of Women Entrepreneurs in Singapore”, Journal for

Women In Management Review, ISSN O964-9425, pp. 13-14.

10. Susan Thomas P (2001), "Women Entrepreneurs in Ernakulum

District in Kerala - An Analytical Study, Gandhigram Rural

Institute, Tamil Nadu, October, p. 17.

60

11. Ganesan S (2003), "Status of Women Entrepreneurs in India, New

Delhi, Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, p. 17.

12. Maria Baeva (2004), "An interesting fact about Bulgarian Women

Entrepreneurs", “Nye Zenith” (We Women) Weekly, pp. 29-30.

13. Istanbul (2004), "Issues and Policies of women Entrepreneurship",

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

Publications, France, pp. 78-79.

14. Bhatia B.S (2005), "A Reflection of the Indian women in

Entrepreneurial World", Journal of General Management, pp. 45-47.

15. Nirmala V (2005), "Information Technology for Empowerment of

Women Entrepreneurs, Journal of Extension and Research, January,

Vol.VII, p. 57.

16. Browse (2005), "Developing Women Entrepreneurs in South Asia

Issues, Initiatives and Experiences", Economic sector, Asia Pacific

Publications, Catalogue 2010, December, United Nations,

December, p. 150.

17. Friederike Welter David Small bones Nina B. (2006), "Enterprising

Women in Transition Economics, Isakova, Ashgatic, Publishing

Limited, p. 23.

18. Santha (2007), “Women Entrepreneurs Enjoy High Social Status”,

The Hindu, Newspaper Daily, Cochin, December 16th

, p.2.

19. Mehdi Hassan (2007), "Support of Women Entrepreneurs". South

Asian Business News, January, Pakistan, p.18.

61

20. Saikou E, Sanyang and Wen-Chittuang (2008), "Small and Medium

Enterprises for Women entrepreneurs in Taiwan", World Journal of

Agricultural Sciences, Vol.4, ISSN 1817-3047, DOSI Publications,

p. 170.

21. Alivelu, G., Srinivasulu, K. Gopinath Reddy, M. (2009), "State

Business Relations and Performance of Manufacturing Sector in

Andrapradesh - A Case Study, Research programme consortium for

improving Institutions for poor growth, Nov, p.63.

22. Andrea E, Smith Hunter, Suithna Mboko (2009), "Women

Entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe - A Case Study, Journal of Global

Business Issues, p. 65.

(c) Support Institutions

1. Pareek H.S. (1978), Financing of small industries in a developing

economy, National, New Delhi, p. 115.

2. Mathew, P.M. (1985), Exploitation of women Labor: An Analysis

of Women’s Employment in Kerala, Social Scientist, Vol, 13, No

10\11, Nov, Oct, p. 71.

3. Shylaja Devi SG (1987), Women entrepreneurs of Kerala, A Case

study of selected units in Trivandrum, M.Phil. thesis, University of

Kerala, pp. 90-97.

4. Santa Kohli Chandra (1991), “Development of Women

Entrepreneurship in India”, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p. 68.

5. Deka Phani, Baruah A.R. (1992), “Women Entrepreneurs-

Challenges and Expectations: A study in North-Eastern Region”,

Asian Entrepreneur (Autumn), p.20.

62

6. Kamala Singh, (1992), Women Entrepreneurs, Hashish Publishing

House, New Delhi, p. 69.

7. Anjali Mehta (1993), “A Study of Women Entrepreneurs in

Gujarat”, Times of India, Ahamedabad, 8th December, p. 11.

8. Cherian (1994), "Impact of Entrepreneurship Development

Programmed on the Performances of SSI Units in Kola District,

CUSAT, Cochin, p. 14.

9. Sarngadharan, M, Beegam, S Lesia (1995), "Women

Entrepreneurship: Institutional Support and Problems, Discovery

Publishing House, Darya Gang, New Delhi, p. 13.

10. Awori Thelma (1995), "Women in Micro and small scale enterprises

Development, University Press of America, West View Press, p.

116.

11. Nayan Baruo Aparajeetha Borkakoty (1998), "Women

Entrepreneurship" APH Publishing Corporation New Delhi, pp. 40-

103

12. Swarajya Laxmi (1998), "Women Entrepreneurship in India,

Problems and Prospects, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi,

pp. 13-16.

13. Carter (2000), "Women in Business - Exploding Some Myths

About Entrepreneurship Education of Female Entrepreneurs", Diana

Project, London, p. 330.

14. Natarajan C, Kavitha M (2003), "Competencies of the Women

Entrepreneurs - A Study, Third Concept, November, ISSN

09707247, pp. 36-38.

63

15. Krishnan Embram (2003), "A Study on Women Entrepreneurship in

Kerala, M.G. University, p. 13.

16. Raju (2003), "Women Entrepreneurship through DWCRA Scheme,

December, SEDME 304, p. 9.

17. Saradha S (2004), “Stress of Women Entrepreneurs a Comparative

Study with Women in Selected Groups in the District of

Ernakulam”, (MBA Project Report), CUSAT, Cochin, April, p. 16.

18. Lalitha N (2005), "Women entrepreneurs of SHGS - A Case

Study", Journal of Extension and Research, VII Nos. 1&2, January,

p.43.

19. Aparajeeta, Nayan, (2005), “Women Entrepreneurship”, APH

Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.

20. Asha Patil, Anuradha Mathu (2007), "Women and Entrepreneurship

- Issues and Challenges, Kalpazpaz Publications, Delhi, p. 322.

21. Femida Handy, Bhagyashree Ranade, Meenaz Kassam, (2007),

"Non Profit Management and Leadership", University of

Pennsylvania, June, Volume 17, p. 66.

22. Vasanthagopal R (2008), "Women Entrepreneurship in India, New

Century publications, p.16.