1

CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.0 Evolution of knowledge

Human beings are the unique creation of evolution of life on the earth. Since their

origin, their greater curiosity always encouraged them to speculate about the operation

of the universe and to remain engaged in constant search of knowledge. Knowledge is

a familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information,

descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. Plato famously

defined knowledge as "justified true belief."1 However, no single agreed upon

definition of knowledge exists. Knowledge can also be defined as the sum of what is

known : the body of truth, information, and principles acquired by humankind.

According to Webster's Dictionary, knowledge is "the fact or condition of knowing

something with familiarity gained through experience or association."2 Knowledge

acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, communication,

association and reasoning.

It is in the very nature of man to try to make his world, and life itself, meaningful and

significant. Therefore, he also tries to extend his knowledge in order to improve his

way of life, thereby rendering it more comfortable and more secure. Almost

everything that we know originates from four basic sources: 3

Senses

Authority

Reason

Intuition

Information from the senses is called empirical knowledge and empiricists believe

that the fundamental source of all knowledge is our senses. Our senses like sight,

sound, smell, touch and taste are exploratory organs. We use them all to become

acquainted with the world we live in. through different senses human beings learnt

that what is sweet and what is sour. Sounds soothe, warn, or frighten. The sun is

2

bright and the moon is cold. Through millions of single sense-events, they built a

fabric of empirical information, which helped them interpret, survive in, and control

the world for them.

In addition to sense knowledge, their most of the knowledge was based on the

experiences derived by some authority or specialists of any field among them. They

trusted and accepted the knowledge recorded by any reputed person without any

doubt or reasoning. Still, all of our historical knowledge is acquired in this way, as is

most of our knowledge of the sciences. We cannot experience the past or personally

repeat every experiment, so we must trust the specialists and accept, though not

blindly, the discoveries they record for us. Over many centuries human believed that,

the God or any super natural power is the controlling authority of the universe, which

controls the working of sun, stars, wind and rain. However, gradually they began to

observe certain cause-effect relationship in the different processes of their

environment. This began the tradition of doubt, questioning and reasoning as a source

of generating knowledge. Reasoning might be defined as the process of using known

facts to arrive at new facts. Reasoning generally comes in two forms: deduction and

induction. Deduction involves „drawing out‟ valid conclusions from previously

known facts – e.g. all cats are animals, Tom is a cat, so Tom is an animal. Induction,

on the other hand, involves jumping from some things one has observed to making

universal statements about all things – e.g. I drop this pencil and it falls, so it is likely

all dropped pencils (and indeed things) will fall.

In addition to senses, authority and reason, intuition also helped them to solve their

many problems suddenly. Intuition refers to insights or bits of knowledge, which

suddenly appears into consciousness resulting in solution of any problem. We all

probably have experienced where the answer to a question we were previously

thinking about but have currently forgotten has suddenly popped into our minds for

no reason. This is intuition and, as such, like reason, it too is dependent on our senses

to provide the raw material on which the subconscious works. Sometimes intuition

seems to be a „feeling‟. We often say something like "I have the feeling he is not

telling the truth," without being sure of why.

3

With the increasing funds of knowledge, they started to explore the nature more and

more to make their life more meaningful. Humans began to practice agriculture,

domesticating plants and animals, which allowed for the growth of civilization. They

made different kinds of tools for hunting and farming, invented fire for cooking and

safety. Each such discovery and invention enriched their understanding in different

fields of knowledge. Gradually the heavy accumulation of new discoveries and

information of different kinds encouraged them to categorize the accumulated

knowledge into different fields. Division of labour in early societies of human beings

also enforced such categorization of knowledge. For e.g. those who were efficient in

farming, tried to accumulate more knowledge of this field. Those who could estimate

time on the basis of solar and lunar movements became earlier astrologers. Those who

domesticated animals became pioneer in the field of animal husbandry.

This early categorization of knowledge was based on conception of difference and

similarity. The first and most fundamental element of human knowledge is their

conception of difference and likeness between the sensations, and these sensations

themselves. Without this conception of difference and likeness, we cannot get

anywhere at all, either in thought or observation. It is the most elementary starting

point of all thinking and observing. The conception of difference and likeness in

various thoughts and observations led human beings towards differentiation and

specialization of knowledge. During this process of specialization, a huge body of

experiences was gained from a variety of fields and a number of important discoveries

and inventions were made. It developed a hierarchy of knowledge.

1.2.0 Specialization and organization of knowledge: Birth of

disciplines

The gaining of experiences in different fields and their further specialization results in

the organization of knowledge of various fields. This organized body of knowledge

of a particular field was termed as „discipline‟. A discipline is a product of human

experience having distinct origin, subject matter, theoretical foundation and research

methodology. Each discipline has a structure of knowledge. This means knowledge in

a given discipline can be seen in certain arrangement. The structure of knowledge

4

across subjects is quite varied depending upon what and how knowledge is generated

in these areas.

According to John D. McNeil (1971)4, „There are approximately one thousand

separate disciplines, although many of them can be categorized under the headings of

the natural sciences, the social sciences, mathematics, and the humanities. Each

discipline is composed of an association of researchers who follow common

procedures in pursuing an area of inquiry. Disciplines are born when there is a need

for the production of knowledge now not available. They die when they can no longer

simplify our understanding of life, do not direct attention to factors of importance in

resolving problems, do not give ways to relate these factors, and do generate new

questions for investigation.‟ For e.g. specialization of knowledge in the fields of

biology and chemistry gave birth to biochemistry. Similarly new disciplines like

oceanography, poultry farming, geophysics, IT and management etc. have emerged

because of their great relevance to the developing world.

1.3.0 Importance of categorizing knowledge in disciplines

According to R. Stichweh (2001)5, “Discipline as the primary unit of internal

differentiation of knowledge is an invention of nineteenth-century society. There

exists a long semantic prehistory of disciplina as a term for the ordering of knowledge

for purposes of instruction in schools and universities. However, only the nineteenth

century establishes real disciplinary communication systems. They are based on

specialization of scholars, on role differentiation in the organizations of knowledge,

the emergence of standard forms of publication and the rise of the research

imperative, which demands a continuous search for novelties. All these structural

changes combined to the disciplinary community as a new type of communication

system in science.” After having been established, the discipline functions as the unit

of structure formation in the social system of science; in systems of higher education,

as subject domain for teaching and learning in schools; and finally as designation of

occupational and professional roles.

5

Although processes of differentiation of knowledge have been going on ever since,

discipline as a basic unit of structure formation is stabilized by these plural roles in

different functional contexts of modern society. Finally, each individual discipline is

embedded into an internal environment of other disciplines. The continuous mutual

observation and interaction of these disciplines is the most important factor in the

dynamics of modern science. The overall level of classification of disciplines is

related to the organizational structures of universities and other research institutions.

In fact, the number of disciplines is great. They are divided into several general

braches: 6

i. Humanities

These disciplines study the human condition. The main methods they use are analytic

and critical. Among humanities are: literature, ancient and modern languages, law,

history, philosophy, religion, arts. Humanities deal with different cultures, world of

art and history. Today, the main direction of work is the exploration and

understanding of human experience.

ii. Social sciences

Social sciences include such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics,

geography, history, linguistics, political science, psychology. Their task is to explore

the aspects of human society, its development and all the processes that influence it.

iii. Natural sciences

These sciences include such disciplines as Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry, Earth

science and Physics. Their task is to explore natural phenomena and all processes that

undergo our planet.

iv. Formal sciences

This branch of knowledge deals with formal systems like logic, mathematics, systems

theory, computer science, information theory, decision theory and statistics. These

sciences use symbols and theoretical rules.

6

v. Professional and Applied sciences

Professional sciences are connected with a certain profession. They are: Agriculture,

Architecture and design, Business, Divinity, Education, Engineering, Environmental

studies and Forestry, Health sciences and others. In their turn, these are divided into

disciplines that are more specific in order to learn one's profession.

The above classification is not widely accepted by scholars of different

disciplines. There is no consensus on how some academic disciplines should be

classified, for e.g., whether anthropology and linguistics are social sciences

disciplines or humanities disciplines.7 Similarly, nature of education as a discipline is

still not clear, while some scholars place it in social sciences others in applied or

professional studies. The proper criteria for organizing knowledge into disciplines are

also open to debate.

1.4.0 Need to know the nature of a discipline

To be able to provide an appropriate „treatment‟ to the content in a subject, the teacher

needs an overview of the nature of content or knowledge in a given subject. As the

students move from elementary to secondary to higher secondary stages, they are in a

position to understand and appreciate the relationship between learning acquired

through stages and the knowledge structure in a subject. Through different stages,

learning turns from general understanding to knowledge that is more specialized. This

specialized knowledge has a structure of its own. At the higher secondary stages,

subject specific knowledge areas like Physics and Chemistry rather than general

science, and knowledge areas of History, Geography, Political Science rather than

social studies, are indicative of different knowledge domains with structure of their

own.

In the view of Lakshmi & Yadav (2003)8, „The subject matter, which the

teacher has to teach the students, seen in relation to its linkage with knowledge

structure of the concerned disciplines, serves as the main basis for deciding activities

and learning experiences to be provided. The structure of knowledge across subjects

also depends upon the way knowledge gets generated and accumulated in these areas.

7

For example, knowledge in sciences is observation based while language and

literature, fine arts, performing arts are based on individual creativity and originality,

therefore not observational in nature.‟

The nature of a particular discipline decides its placement in a particular faculty or

department of an institution. Accordingly, different teaching-learning activities are

organized for the transaction of knowledge of a particular discipline. Largely, the

choice of subjects by students can be directly related to the nature of a particular

subject. For example, students who are inquisitive, keen observer and like

experiments in daily life, generally found suitable for studying sciences. On the other

hand, students who are creative and value emotions and feelings, who can express

themselves well and have a good aesthetic sense have aptitude for studying literature

and fine arts. On the basis of the nature of a subject, a teacher can understand that

who can understand a subject well, accordingly students can be guided to opt a

particular field of study.

1.5.0 Education as a discipline

Education is a distinct discipline, which was the product of humans‟ efforts to share

the accumulated knowledge and experiences to other individuals. The main inquiry

related to the origin of education as a discipline is "how to educate or make learn an

individual”. The discipline aroused to fulfill the need of theoretical bases that guide

the practice of teaching for pupil teachers. Later on, it expanded its branches to other

fields where the need of educating the people aroused, such as, adult education and

population education. In this way, it has become a vast field of study encompassing

various sub disciplines related to education of different individuals in different fields.

The term „education‟ does not designate a field of study only. In addition, it has other

meanings too. Before discussing education as a discipline, it is necessary to analyze

the various meanings of the term „education‟.

1.5.1 Meaning of education

To answer the question „What is education‟ is not so simple. If one has to answer

what is physics, he can simply reply, „Physics is a discipline which studies properties

of matter‟ the answer for psychology is „study of behaviour‟ and for biology it is

8

„study of living beings.‟ However, a single term „education‟ has different meanings

when used in different senses.

The term education is derived from Latin word educere, educare, and educatum,

which means 'to draw out', 'to bring up', „to lead out', „to train or to educate‟.9 It means

education refers to leading out internal hidden talent of a child or person. According

to its dictionary meaning the term can be interpreted in one or more of the following

ways: 10

1. The act or process of acquiring knowledge, especially systematically during

childhood and adolescence.

2. The knowledge or training acquired by this process: his education has been

invaluable to him.

3. The act or process of imparting knowledge, especially at a school, college, or

university: education is my profession.

4. The theory of teaching and learning / the science or art of teaching; pedagogies: a

course in education.

5. A particular kind of instruction or training: woman education, consumer education.

6. A degree, level, or kind of schooling: primary education, a university education.

It is clear by above interpretation that the term Education can be broadly defined in

three ways:-

i. As knowledge

Knowledge is the sum total of facts, truths, laws, principles, and ideas that

man has produced. The knowledge acquired by formal and informal means

from life until death is termed as education. In Indian tradition, meaning of

education includes knowledge of Brahma, knowledge of the universe and

knowledge of the self.11

ii. As a process

Education is the formal process by which society deliberately transmits its

accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to

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another; it is a process of educating or teaching. It is the process of

development of mental and physical skills- motor, thinking, communication,

social, and aesthetic. According to John Dewey, „Education is not a

preparation for life, rather it is the living. Education is the process of living

through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of

all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his

environment and fulfill his possibilities.‟12

iii. As a subject or discipline

Encyclopedia Britannica (2008)13

defined education as a discipline that is

concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like

environments as opposed to various non-formal and informal means of

socialization. However, discipline of education is not limited to the system of

schooling and pedagogy only. In addition, it includes processes and systems of

educating diverse groups on diverse issues.

1.5.2 Status of Education as a Discipline

Despite the wide recognition of its importance in social development, education, as a

discipline, has remained largely underdeveloped. There is a great discussion among

scholars about the entity of education as a separate discipline. Education as a separate

discipline is rich of many facts, concepts, principle and laws, which furnish the

theoretical structure of the discipline. All the inquiries related to field of education can

be answered on the basis of those theoretical structures. All those features related to

education support the view that education is a separate discipline, which has its

distinct origin, theoretical structure, and foundation and research methodology.

1.6.0 Need and importance of the Study

Since long education as a discipline is searching its identity. The disciplinary status of

education is currently under debate. The discipline of tremendous social importance

fail to establish itself as an autonomous and academically respected discipline. There

are different views regarding the disciplinary status of education. Broadly, these

views can be classified in to following groups:

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i. Education can never be a discipline

Some scholars (Peters 196314

, Hughes 196315

, Conant 196416

and Woods17

)

believe that education is not a separate discipline. It is only a loose combination

of different disciplines such as philosophy, sociology and psychology etc.

According to them, education does not have its own knowledge base and

knowledge generation mechanisms. In addition, it borrows most of the concepts

and methods from other disciplines. This view raises many questions like, „If

education is not a discipline than, is there its alternative in the form of any other

discipline?‟ and „What is the need of combining content of different disciplines in

the form of education if we can study its foundational disciplines separately?‟ It

is also asked that if the owing of content and methods is the only criterion to be

recognized as discipline then most of the existing disciplines that share and adopt

content and methods would be considered as non- disciplines.

ii. Education is a distinct discipline

Some other educationists (Walton & Kuethe 196318

, Walton 1971,19

Belth

1965,20

Solitis 1968,21

and Yadav & Lakshmi, 199522

) defend disciplinary status

of education by proving limitations of other social sciences as disciplines or they

regard it as an applied discipline. However, such efforts are not doing full justice

with a discipline full of potential and possibilities to be recognised as a unique

discipline. The real error lay in the method of trying to establish a unique

discipline of education by comparing it to other, familiar disciplines. As an area

of study, education is not like mathematics or physics and it is not similar to

psychology or sociology. By comparing it with other disciplines, we dilute the

status of a unique discipline. Therefore, the need is to explore distinctness of

education as a discipline. If a discipline is to take on a direction of its own, its

character and goals must be clearly defined. Identification merely as an “applied”

science does not afford such clarification.

iii. Education is not a single discipline but interdisciplinary or

multidisciplinary in nature

On the other hand, some scholars (G. Biesta 200923

, S. Kumar 201224

) question

the „disciplinary classification of the knowledge‟. They propound that each

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discipline in some or other way related to other. They insist to remove boundaries

between different disciplines. These efforts gave birth to interdisciplinary and

multidisciplinary approaches. This view considers education not just a single

discipline but also a field where interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary

contribution is necessary for enrichment of scholarship.

iv. Education is not a discipline but a transdiscipline

Some more enthusiastic scholars (Palaiologou 201025

) consider education more

than a discipline and place it beyond the ordinary limits of a discipline. They

designate education as a transdiscipline. According to their claim, Education

Studies by its nature and complexity cannot seek identity as mono, inter, and

multidisciplinary approaches. They suggest that, given the complexity of the

context it serves to match, instead Educational Studies is embedded within

transdisciplinarity.

Due to different interpretations given by different scholars education is called by

different names:

a. An established discipline

b. An emerging discipline

c. Applied or professional study

d. Pseudo-science

e. A family of related discipline

f. A field of study

g. A practical activity communicates content of other disciplines

h. Discipline of disciplines

The study of education does not fit completely into any of the categories listed here; it

may, in fact, constitute an original approach to the study of a familiar and continually

interesting phenomenon. The clouds of doubt on the nature of education have

negative impacts on the growth of this field of study as also points out by Vashishtha,

2010:26

i. It is not yet regarded as a discipline. In administrative or competitive exams for

various recruitments, it is not given the status of a subject.

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ii. It is charged that education borrows most of its content from parent disciplines

like philosophy, sociology, psychology and even statistics. Thus, it does not have

its own subject matter.

iii. The discipline is reduced to mere teacher training.

iv. Some regarded it as a mere profession, rather than a discipline.

v. In many states of India, for e.g., in M. P. teacher education institutions come

under school education. At national level also, teacher education is covered under

school education department of the Ministry of HRD.

From the above discussion, it is clear that there is an urgent need to clear the doubts

over the disciplinary status of education. Since long the nature of the discipline has

remain unclear, while its identity is typically determined by administrative

convenience and market demand rather than analysis of its historical development and

scholarly position within the system of arts and sciences. Marc Belth (1965) 27

answers the question, „why there is a need to establish a discipline of education‟, in

these words, “In a world in which knowledge is increased in terms of the ability to

make clean distinctions where none existed before, and where knowledge makes

possible activity not otherwise possible, why not develop distinctness which we have

all suspected were begun long ago, and which are now growing more evident, more

quickly? There is a great need for a distillation of the thinking of the past half century,

and for an understanding of the direction being taken by education.”

The present study is an effort to go back over some of the ideas, which have led

education to where it is today. The study does not claim to establish education as a

discipline but attempts to give it an identity, which is most suitable for it. The study is

needed to know „what is educational in education?‟ that is how it is distinct from its

foundational disciplines? The study has tried to work out a basis from which

development of a clearly defined study of education, as a uniquely distinctive,

theoretical as well as practical, self-correcting, and internally directing mode of

inquiry can be instituted.

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1.7.0 Statement of the problem

The problem of the present investigation can be specifically stated below:

“Development of Education as a Discipline- An Analytical Study”

1.8.0 Definition of key terms

Development: Development is a continuous process. During this process, disciplines

evolve, grow and enrich their content and methods. These all are different phases of

development of a discipline. The study is an attempt to study these developmental

phases of education as a field of study. The study is an effort to explore those qualities

of education, which have helped in developing it as a distinct field of study. The study

also tries to find out those limitations (if any) of education which prevent it

developing as a distinct discipline. However, the study is not going to prove or

establish „education‟ as a discipline, instead, it explores the extent to which education

has developed itself as a discipline and what should be done for its future

development.

Education: As discussed earlier, the term is used in different sense. The present

study deals with „education as a subject of study and research‟ at different levels. As a

subject, it mainly deals with studying the process and systems of educating.

Discipline: Discipline is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "a branch of

learning or knowledge".28

A discipline is recognized by a certain distinctness it

reveals in its substance and methodology.

Analytical study: Analysis is a very dominant philosophical tendency. It involves

clarification and criticism of concepts, theories, and arguments. Analytical study is an

understanding of fundamental concepts, other related concepts, and interrelationship

between these concepts. There are many types of analyses. In the present study,

mainly critical analysis has been used.

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1.9.0 Research Questions and Objectives of the study

1.9.1 Research Questions

The present study is an attempt to find out answers of the following questions:

What is meant by the term discipline?

How can a discipline be defined?

What are the general characteristics of a discipline?

What is the difference between „discipline‟ and other related terms?

How and when did disciplines evolve?

What criteria have been given at different times to characterize a body of

knowledge as a discipline?

To which extent do these criteria characterize a discipline adequately?

Do these criteria justifiably distinguish a discipline from a non-discipline?

Is it justified to evaluate all the bodies of knowledge on the same old criteria

in order to be recognized as a discipline?

What are the shortcomings/limitations (if any) of these criteria?

What modifications should be done in the existing criteria to make it equally

applicable to all the bodies of knowledge?

What should be ideal criteria to evaluate disciplinary status of different bodies

of knowledge justifiably?

Is it necessary for a body of knowledge to fulfill all of these criteria to be

recognized as a discipline?

How and when did discipline of education evolve and its institutional study as

a subject came into existence?

What are the objectives of studying education as a subject?

15

To which extent does education fulfill the different criteria/ norms to be

recognized as a discipline?

How can we delineate subject matter, theories, research methods, terms and

concepts of education from its foundational disciplines?

What is the interrelationship between education and its foundational

disciplines?

Should education be considered only a dynamic aspect of its foundational

disciplines or a distinct discipline in its own right?

If education is a discipline then what is its status in academic world?

o Is education a developed discipline?

o Why it is generally considered undeveloped?

o Is it still developing?

o Is it worthy to be developed like a discipline?

o What is the status of study, Research and publication in academic

study of education?

o What is its academic, social and professional significance as a

discipline?

What are the reasons/ threats/limitations to develop education as a discipline/

distinct field of study?

What are the controversies associated with the academic status of education?

Which kind of discipline or a field of study it is?

Where does education stand in the disciplinary classification systems?

What are the unique features of education as a field of study?

How can education be developed as a distinct field of study or a discipline?

16

In which direction should future development of education be based?

Should education be developed as a discipline only or beyond the traditional

boundaries of a discipline?

1.9.2 Objectives of the Study

Corresponding to the research questions, objectives of the present study are as

follows:

i. To understand and analyze the concept of a discipline.

ii. To study and review the criteria of a discipline.

iii. To analyze the discipline of education from the view of accepted criteria/

norms.

iv. To explore nature and future of education as a discipline/field of study.

1.10.0 Delimitations of the study

1. The present study does not claim to be an exhaustive exploration of the subject, nor

it is going to give any judgment over disciplinary status of education, rather it is a

systematic assembling and critical analysis of various opinions collected from

different sources and investigator‟s own. The study is delimited to exploring

distinctness of education as a field of study.

2. The present study is delimited to studying education as an area of formal study and

research at various institutions. It does not deal with the process, systems and

levels of education.

1.11.0 Plan of the study

Corresponding to the objectives of the study the framework of the thesis has been

organized under 9 chapters:

Chapter -1 is introductory. It deals with the background of the problem, which covers

the meaning of education and debate over its disciplinary status. In addition, need and

importance of the study were discussed. The chapter also includes objectives and

delimitations of the study.

17

Chapter -2 reviews and analyzes the literature available in the concerned area and

draws out the extent and limitations of previously done work.

Chapter -3 discusses the methodology undertaken for the present study.

Chapter -4 deals with detailed account of meaning, evolution and classification of

academic disciplines. It covers the First objective.

Chapter -5 covers the second objective of the study. It reviews and analyzes the

criteria of a discipline in detail.

Chapter -6 deals with the third objective. It analyzes the disciplinary status of

education from the view of accepted criteria/norms.

Chapter -7 attempts to explore nature and future of education as a distinct field of

study. It covers the fourth and the last objective.

Chapter-8 discusses the findings, conclusion and implications of the present study. It

also puts forth limitations of the present research work and suggestions for future

research work.

Chapter -9 is the last chapter, which presents the summary of the study.

In this chapter the background, need, importance, objectives, and

delimitations of the study have been discussed. In the next chapter, the literature

related to the study will be reviewed and analyzed.

18

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