CHAPTER 1 Understanding RESEARCH CHAPTER 1 Understanding RESEARCH 1.
Chapter 1
description
Transcript of Chapter 1
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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 1Chapter 1
Themes in the Study of Life
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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: Biology’s Most Exciting Era
• Biology is the scientific study of life
• Biologists are moving closer to understanding:
– How a single cell develops into an organism
– How plants convert sunlight to chemical energy
– How the human mind works
– How living things interact in communities
– How life’s diversity evolved from the first microbes
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Themes of Biology:
• Evolution
• Ecosystems
• Biological organization
• Cells
• DNA
• Feedback mechanisms
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• Life’s basic characteristic is a high degree of order
• Each level of biological organization has emergent properties
Video: Seahorse CamouflageVideo: Seahorse Camouflage
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• The study of life extends from molecules and cells to the entire living planet
• Biological organization is based on a hierarchy of structural levels
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A Hierarchy of Biological Organization
1. Biosphere: all environments on Earth
2. Ecosystem: all living and nonliving things in a particular area
3. Community: all organisms in an ecosystem
4. Population: all individuals of a species in a particular area
5. Organism: an individual living thing
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A Hierarchy of Biological Organization (continued)
6. Organ and organ systems: specialized body parts made up of tissues
7. Tissue: a group of similar cells
8. Cell: life’s fundamental unit of structure and function
9. Organelle: a structural component of a cell
10. Molecule: a chemical structure consisting of atoms
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Ecosystems
The biosphere
Organisms
Populations
Communities
Cells
Organelles
Molecules
Tissues
Organs and organ systems
Cell1 µm
Atoms
10 µm
50 µm
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A Closer Look at Ecosystems
• Each organism interacts with its environment
• Both organism and environment affect each other
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Ecosystem Dynamics
• The dynamics of an ecosystem include two major processes:
– Cycling of nutrients, in which materials acquired by plants eventually return to the soil
– The flow of energy from sunlight to producers to consumers
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Energy Conversion
• Activities of life require work
• Work depends on sources of energy
• Energy exchange between an organism and environment often involves energy transformations
• In transformations, some energy is lost as heat
• Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as light and exiting as heat
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LE 1-4
Sunlight
Ecosystem
Heat
Heat
Chemicalenergy
Consumers(including animals)
Producers(plants and otherphotosynthetic
organisms)
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A Closer Look at Cells
• The cell is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities of life
• The ability of cells to divide is the basis of all reproduction, growth, and repair of multicellular organisms
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LE 1-5
25 µm
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The Cell’s Heritable Information
• Cells contain DNA, the heritable information that directs the cell’s activities
• DNA is the substance of genes
• Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring
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LE 1-6
Sperm cell
NucleicontainingDNA
Egg cell
Fertilized eggwith DNA fromboth parents
Embryo’s cells With copies of inherited DNA
Offspring with traits inherited from both parents
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• Each DNA molecule is made up of two long chains arranged in a double helix
• Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides
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LE 1-7
DNA double helix Single strand of DNA
Nucleotide
Cell
Nucleus DNA
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Two Main Forms of Cells
• Characteristics shared by all cells:
– Enclosed by a membrane
– Use DNA as genetic information
• Two main forms of cells:
– Eukaryotic: divided into organelles; DNA in nucleus
– Prokaryotic: lack organelles; DNA not separated in a nucleus
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LE 1-8
Membrane
Cytoplasm
EUKARYOTIC CELL PROKARYOTIC CELL
DNA(no nucleus)
Membrane
1 µm
Organelles
Nucleus (contains DNA)
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Feedback Regulation in Biological Systems
• Regulatory systems ensure a dynamic balance in living systems
• Chemical processes are catalyzed (accelerated) by enzymes
• Many biological processes are self-regulating: the product regulates the process itself
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• In negative feedback, the accumulation of a product slows down the process itself
• In positive feedback (less common), the product speeds up its own production
Animation: Negative FeedbackAnimation: Negative Feedback Animation: Positive FeedbackAnimation: Positive Feedback
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LE 1-11
Enzyme 1
A A
BB
C C
DD
D
DD
D
D
D
DDD
Enzyme 2
Enzyme 3
Negativefeedback
Enzyme 1
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LE 1-12
W
Enzyme 4
W
XX
Y Y
ZZ
ZZ
Z ZZ
ZZ Z
Enzyme 5
Enzyme 6
Positivefeedback
Enzyme 4
Enzyme 6
Enzyme 5
Z
Z Z Z
Z
Z
Z
ZZ
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• Biologists explore life across its great diversity of species
• Biologists have named about 1.8 million species
• Estimates of total species range from 10 million to over 200 million
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Grouping Species: The Basic Idea
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and classifies species into a hierarchical order
• Kingdoms and domains are the broadest units of classification
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LE 1-14
Ursidae
Ursus
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom DomainUrsusamericanus(Americanblack bear)
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The Three Domains of Life
• At the highest level, life is classified into three domains:
– Bacteria (prokaryotes)
– Archaea (prokaryotes)
– Eukarya (eukaryotes)Eukaryotes include protists and the kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia
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LE 1-15
Bacteria 4 µm 100 µm
0.5 µm
Kingdom PlantaeProtists
Kingdom AnimaliaKingdom FungiArchaea
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Unity in the Diversity of Life
• Underlying life’s diversity is a striking unity, especially at lower levels of organization
• In eukaryotes, unity is evident in details of cell structure
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LE 1-16a
Cilia of windpipe cellsCilia of Paramecium
15 µm 5 µm
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LE 1-16b
Cilia of windpipe cellsCilia of Paramecium
Cross section of cilium,as viewed with anelectron microscope
0.1 µm
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• Evolution accounts for life’s unity and diversity
• The history of life is a saga of a changing Earth billions of years old
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• The evolutionary view of life came into sharp focus in 1859, when Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection
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• The Origin of Species articulated two main points:
– Descent with modification (the view that contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors)
– Natural selection (a proposed mechanism for descent with modification)
• Some examples of descent with modification are unity and diversity in the orchid family
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Natural Selection
• Darwin inferred natural selection by connecting two observations:
– Observation: Individual variation in heritable traits
– Observation: Overpopulation and competition
– Inference: Unequal reproductive success
– Inference: Evolutionary adaptation
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LE 1-20
Evolution of adaptationsin the population
Differences inreproductive success
Overproductionand competition
Populationof organisms
Hereditaryvariations
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• An example is the effect of birds preying on a beetle population
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LE 1-21
Population with varied inherited traits
Elimination of individuals with certain traits
Reproduction of survivors
Increasing frequency of traits that enhancesurvival and reproductive success
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• Natural selection is often evident in adaptations of organisms to their way of life and environment
• Bat wings are an example of adaptation
Video: Soaring HawkVideo: Soaring Hawk
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Hypothesis-Based Science
• In science, inquiry usually involves proposing and testing hypotheses
• Hypotheses are hypothetical explanations
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The Role of Hypotheses in Inquiry
• In science, a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a well-framed question
• A hypothesis is an explanation on trial, making a prediction that can be tested
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LE 1-25a
Hypothesis #1:Dead batteries
Hypothesis #2:Burnt-out bulb
Observations
Question
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LE 1-25b
Hypothesis #1:Dead batteries
Hypothesis #2:Burnt-out bulb
Test prediction
Test falsifies hypothesis
Prediction:Replacing batterieswill fix problem
Prediction:Replacing bulbwill fix problem
Test prediction
Test does not falsify hypothesis
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A Closer Look at Hypotheses in Scientific Inquiry
• A scientific hypothesis must have two important qualities:
– It must be testable
– It must be falsifiable
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• In mimicry, a harmless species resembles a harmful species
• An example of mimicry is a stinging honeybee and a nonstinging mimic, a flower fly
A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Mimicry in Snake Populations
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LE 1-26
Flower fly (nonstinging)
Honeybee (stinging)
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• This case study examines king snakes’ mimicry of poisonous coral snakes
• The hypothesis states that mimics benefit when predators mistake them for harmful species
• The mimicry hypothesis predicts that predators in non–coral snake areas will attack king snakes more frequently than will predators that live where coral snakes are present
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LE 1-27
Scarlet king snake
Eastern coralsnake
Scarlet king snake
Key
Range of scarlet king snake
NorthCarolina
Range of easterncoral snake
SouthCarolina
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Field Experiments with Artificial Snakes
• To test this mimicry hypothesis, researchers made hundreds of artificial snakes:
– An experimental group resembling king snakes
– A control group resembling plain brown snakes
• Equal numbers of both types were placed at field sites, including areas without coral snakes
• After four weeks, the scientists retrieved the artificial snakes and counted bite or claw marks
• The data fit the predictions of the mimicry hypothesis
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LE 1-28
(a) Artificial king snake
(b) Artificial brown snake that has been attacked
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In areas where coral snakes were present, most attacks were on brown artificial snakes.
In areas where coral snakeswere absent, most attacks
were on artificial king snakes.
LE 1-29
% of attacks onartificial king snakes
% of attacks onbrown artificial snakes
Field site withartificial snakes
83%
NorthCarolina
SouthCarolina
17%
16%
84%
Key
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Limitations of Science
• The limitations of science are set by its naturalism
– Science seeks natural causes for natural phenomena
– Science cannot support or falsify supernatural explanations, which are outside the bounds of science
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Theories in Science
• A scientific theory is much broader than a hypothesis
• A scientific theory is:
– broad in scope
– general enough to generate new hypotheses
– supported by a large body of evidence
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Science, Technology, and Society
• The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena
• Technology applies scientific knowledge for some specific purpose