Chapt03 Holes Lecture Animation[1]

BIOL 2064 - 91Anatomy & Physiology 1

Chapter 3 Cells

Edited byBrenda HolmesMSN/Ed, RNAssociate Professor

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South Arkansas Community College

3.1: Introduction

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• The basic organizational structure of the human body is the cell.

• There are 50-100 trillion cells in the human body.

• Differentiation is when cells specialize.

• As a result of differentiation, cells vary in size and shape due to their unique function.

3.2: A Composite Cell

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• Also called a ‘typical’ cell• Major parts include:

• Nucleus• Cytoplasm• Cell membrane

Microtubules

Flagellum

Nuclear envelope

Basal body

Chromatin

Ribosomes

Cell membrane

Mitochondrion

Cilia

Microtubules

Microtubule

Centrioles

Microvilli

Lysosomes

Nucleolus

Nucleus

Phospholipid bilayer

SmoothEndoplasmicreticulum

RoughEndoplasmicreticulum

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Golgiapparatus

Secretoryvesicles

Cell Membrane(aka Plasma Membrane)

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• Outer limit of the cell• Controls what moves in and out of the cell• Selectively permeable• Phospholipid bilayer

• Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic)• Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic)• Permeable to lipid-soluble substances

• Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane• Proteins:

• Receptors• Pores, channels and carriers• Enzymes• CAMS• Self-markers

Cell Membrane

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Cell membraneCell membrane

(b)(a)

“Heads” ofphospholipid

“Tails” ofphospholipid


a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Fibrous proteinCarbohydrateGlycolipidGlycoprotein

Extracellular sideof membrane

Cytoplasmic sideof membrane

Cholesterolmolecules

Globularprotein

Doublelayer ofPhospholipidmolecules

Hydrophobicfatty acid“tail”

HydrophilicPhosphate“head”


3.1 Clinical Application

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Faulty Ion Channels Cause Disease

Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)

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• Guide cells on the move

• Selectin – allows white blood cells to “anchor”

• Integrin – guides white blood cells through capillary walls

• Important for growth ofembryonic tissue

• Important for growth of nerve cells

Adhesion

White blood cell

Integrin

Selectin

Exit

Splinter

Attachment(rolling)

Blood vessellining cell

Carbohydrateson capillary wall

Adhesionreceptor proteins


Cytoplasm

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• Cytosol = water

• Organelles = solids

Cytoplasm is really like a Jello fruit salad where the Jello is the cytosol and the fruits (oranges, grapes, bananas, maybe walnuts,

etc.) are the organelles.

Organelles

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)• Connected, membrane-bound sacs, canals, and vesicles• Transport system• Rough ER

• Studded with ribosomes• Smooth ER

• Lipid synthesis• Added to proteinsarriving from rough ER

• Break down of drugsRibosomes

• Free floating or connected to ER• Provide structural support and enzyme activityto amino acids to form protein

Membranes

Ribosomes

Membranes

(b) (c)


Organelles

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Golgi apparatus• Stack of flattened, membranous sacs• Modifies, packagesand delivers proteins

Vesicles• Membranous sacs• Store substances

Inner membrane

Outer membrane

Cristae

(a) (b)


a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Mitochondria• Membranous sacs with inner partitions• Generate energy

Organelles

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Lysosomes• Enzyme-containing sacs• Digest worn out cell parts or unwanted substances

Peroxisomes• Enzyme-containing sacs• Break down organic molecules

Centrosome• Two rod-like centrioles• Used to produce cilia and flagella• Distributes chromosomes during cell division

(a) (b)

Centriole(cross-section)

Centriole(longitudinal section)


a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

Organelles

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Cilia• Short hair-like projections• Propel substances on cell surface

Flagellum• Long tail-like projection• Provides motility to sperm

(a)


a: © Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc.

© Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS

Organelles

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Microfilaments and microtubules• Thin rods and tubules• Support cytoplasm• Allows for movement of organelles

Inclusions

• Temporary nutrients and pigments

Microtubules

Microfilaments


© M. Schliwa/Visuals Unlimited

3.2 Clinical Application

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Disease at the Organelle Level

Cell Nucleus

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• Is the control center of the cell

• Nuclear envelope• Porous double membrane• Separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm

• Nucleolus• Dense collection of RNA and proteins• Site of ribosome production

• Chromatin• Fibers of DNA and proteins• Stores information for synthesis of proteins


Nucleus

Nucleolus

Chromatin

(a)

Nuclearpores

Nuclearenvelope

3.3: Movements Into and Out of the Cell

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Passive (Physical) Processes• Require no cellular energy and include:

• Simple diffusion• Facilitated diffusion• Osmosis• Filtration

Active (Physiological) Processes• Require cellular energy and include:

• Active transport• Endocytosis• Exocytosis• Transcytosis

Simple Diffusion

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• Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration• Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances

Time

Solute molecule

Water molecule

A B A B

(2) (3)

Permeablemembrane

A B

(1)


Animation:How Diffusion Works

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Facilitated Diffusion

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• Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier molecule• Glucose and amino acids

Region of higherconcentration

Transportedsubstance

Region of lowerconcentration

Protein carriermolecule

Cellmembrane


Animation:How Facilitated Diffusion Works

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Animation:Diffusion Through Cell Membranes

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Osmosis

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• Movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration• Water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes

Time

Protein molecule

Water molecule

A

B

A B

(1) (2)

Selectivelypermeablemembrane


Animation:How Osmosis Works

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Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

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• Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generateenough pressure to move a volume of water

• Osmotic pressure increases as the concentrationof nonpermeable solutes increases

• Isotonic – same osmotic pressure• Hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure (water loss)• Hypotonic – lower osmotic pressure (water gain)


© David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited

(b)

(a)

(c)

Filtration

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• Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes• Hydrostatic pressure important in the body• Molecules leaving blood capillaries


Capillary wall

Larger molecules

Smaller molecules

Bloodpressure Blood

flow

Tissue fluid

Active Transport

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• Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration• Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc.


Carrier protein Binding site

(a)

(b)

Cel

l mem

bra

ne

Carrier proteinwith altered shape

Phospholipidmolecules Transported

particle

Cellularenergy

Region of higherconcentration

Region of lowerconcentration

Animation:Primary Active Transport

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Animation:Secondary Active Transport

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Active Transport:Sodium-Potassium Pump

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• Active transport mechanism• Creates balance by “pumping” three (3) sodium (Na+) OUT and two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell• 3:2 ratio

Animation:How the Sodium-Potassium

Pump Works

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Endocytosis

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• Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around the substance• Three types:

• Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water• Phagocytosis – substance is a solid• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the substance to bind to a membrane-bound receptor

Nucleus Nucleolus

Particle VesiclePhagocytizedparticle

Cellmembrane


Endocytosis

32Cytoplasm

Vesicle

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Receptorprotein

Cellmembrane

Moleculesoutside cell

Cellmembraneindenting

Receptor-ligandcombination

Nucleus Nucleolus

Particle VesiclePhagocytizedparticle

Cellmembrane


Exocytosis

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• Reverse of endocytosis• Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane• Contents released outside the cell• Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells

Nucleus

Endoplasmicreticulum

Golgiapparatus


Transcytosis

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• Endocytosis followed by exocytosis• Transports a substance rapidly through a cell• HIV crossing a cell layer

Viruses budHIV

Exocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

HIV-infectedwhite blood cells Anal or

vaginal canal

Lining of anusor vagina(epithelial cells)

Virus infectswhite blood cells onother side of lining

Receptor-mediatedendocytosis


Cellmembrane

3.4: The Cell Cycle

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• Series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it forms until the time it divide• Stages:

• Interphase• Mitosis• Cytokinesis

Apoptosis

G2 phase

Prophase

Metaphase

AnaphaseTelophase

Cytokinesis

Restrictioncheckpoint

Remainspecialized

Proceedto division

S phase:geneticmaterialreplicates

G1 phasecell growth


Interphase

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• Very active period• Cell grows• Cell maintains routine functions• Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division• Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic division• Phases:

• G phases – cell grows and synthesizes structures other than DNA• S phase – cell replicates DNA

Mitosis

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• Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell• Nucleus divides – karyokinesis• Cytoplasm divides – cytokinesis • Phases of nuclear division:

• Prophase – chromosomes form; nuclear envelope disappears• Metaphase – chromosomes align midway between centrioles• Anaphase – chromosomes separate and move to centrioles• Telophase – chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms

Mitosis

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Telophase and CytokinesisNuclear envelopes begin toreassemble around two daughternuclei. Chromosomes decondense.Spindle disappears. Division ofthe cytoplasm into two cells.

AnaphaseSister chromatids separate toopposite poles of cell. Eventsbegin which lead to cytokinesis.

MetaphaseChromosomes align alongequator, or metaphase plateof cell.

ProphaseChromosomes condense andbecome visible. Nuclearenvelope and nucleolusdisperse. Spindle apparatusforms.

Late InterphaseCell has passed therestriction checkpointand completed DNAreplication, as well asreplication of centriolesand mitochondria, andsynthesis of extramembrane.

Early Interphaseof daughter cells—a time of normal cellgrowth and function.

Cleavagefurrow

Nuclearenvelopes

Nuclearenvelope

Chromatinfibers

Chromosomes

Spindle fiber

Centromere

Aster

Centrioles

Late prophase

Sisterchromatids

Microtubules

Mitosis

Cytokinesis

S phase

G1 phase

Interphase

Restrictioncheckpoint

(a)

(b)

(c)(d)

(e)


© Ed Reschke

G2 phase

Animation:Mitosis and Cytokinesis

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Cytoplasmic Division

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• Also known as cytokinesis • Begins during anaphase• Continues through telophase• Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half

Animation:Control of the Cell Cycle

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3.5: Control of Cell Division

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• Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types• Skin and blood cells divide often and continually• Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease

• Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis provide a mitotic clock

• Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to volume relationship

• Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division• Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus• Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin

• Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control

• Contact (density dependent) inhibition

Tumors

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• Two types of tumors:• Benign – usually remains localized• Malignant – invasive and can metastasize; cancerous

• Two major types of genes cause cancer:

• Oncogenes – activate other genes that increase cell division• Tumor suppressor genes – normally regulate mitosis; if inactivated they are unable to regulate mitosis

• Cells are now known as “immortal”

Normal cells(with hairlike cilia)

Cancer cells


© Tony Brain/Photo Researchers, Inc.;

Animation:How Tumor Suppressor Genes

Block Cell Division

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3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells

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• Stem cell:• Can divide to form two new stem cells

• Self-renewal• Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell• Totipotent – can give rise to every cell type• Pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types

• Progenitor cell:• Committed cell• Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells • Pluripotent

Stem and Progenitor Cells

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one or more steps

Sperm

Egg

Fertilizedegg

Stem cell

Stem cell

Progenitor cell

Progenitorcell

Progenitorcell

Blood cells and platelets

Fibroblasts (a connective tissue cells)

Bone cells

Progenitorcell

Astrocyte

Neuron

Skin cell

Sebaceousgland cell

produces another stem cell(self-renewal)

Progenitorcell

Progenitorcell

Progenitorcell

Progenitorcell

Progenitorcell

Progenitorcell


3.1 From Science to Technology

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Therapeutic Stem Cells

3.7: Cell Death

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Apoptosis:

• Programmed cell death

• Acts as a protective mechanism

• Is a continuous process

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Important Points in Chapter 3:Outcomes to be Assessed

3.1: Introduction

Define cell.

State the range of cell numbers and cells sizes in a human body.

State the term for cell specialization.

3.2: A Composite Cell

List the three major parts of a composite cell.

State the general function of organelles.

Explain how the structure of a cell membrane makes possible its function.

Describe each type of organelle, and explain its function.

Describe the parts of a cell nucleus and their functions.

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3.3: Movement Into and Out of the Cell

Explain the various ways that substances move through the cell membrane.

Discuss how the mechanisms of crossing cell membranes differ.

3.4: The Cell Cycle

Describe the parts of the cell cycle and identify the major activities during each part.

Explain why regulation of the cell cycle is important to health.

Distinguish between mitosis and cytokinesis.

List the stages of mitosis and describe the events of each stage.

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3.5: Control of Cell Division

Explain how different types of cells differ in their rate of cells division.

State the range of cell divisions a cell typically undergoes.

Discuss factors that influence whether or not a cell divides.

Explain how cancer arises from too-frequent cell division.

Distinguish the two types of genetic control of cancer.

3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells

Define differentiation.

Distinguish between a stem cell and a progenitor cell.

Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic information, but different appearances and functions.

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3.7: Cell Death

Define apoptosis.

Distinguish apoptosis from necrosis.

List the steps of apoptosis.

Describe the relationship between apoptosis and mitosis.

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Quiz 3

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Read Chapter 4.

Chapt03 Holes Lecture Animation[1]

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