Chap21

602

Psychology JournalWhat do you think will be

the most serious problem orproblems in the United States and in the world in this century? Write youranswer in your journal. �

Chapter OverviewVisit the Understanding PsychologyWeb site at psychology.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 21—ChapterOverviews to preview the chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/psychology/psych2001/chapter21/overview.html

Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future 603

In the passage above, author Stephen Poland explains his experienceswith teaching a group of mentally handicapped Navajo children. Thisadventure led him to seek his destiny and his career—becoming a

school psychologist.

CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY “What are you going to do when you get out of school?”“Beats me. My grandparents want me to learn the shoe business and

take over when they retire. Mom and Dad want me to think about law as

Careers in Psychology

� Main IdeaHuman behavior plays a key role inmany areas of study. Studying psy-chology can prepare you for manycareer opportunities.

� Vocabulary• crisis intervention program

� Objectives• Outline the requirements needed to

become a psychologist.• List several careers available in

psychology.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

Choosing My DestinyMany of the students at the school had

been given intelligence tests and scored atthe lowest and most handicapped level. Yetit was evident that these young people hadskills that were relevant to their culture. Irecall a Down’s syndrome child who couldbeat out complex rhythms on the drum,young women who learned to card andweave rugs from foster grandparents, andYazzie, our survival artist, who could go fordays in very severe weather conditionswith little clothing or food and would turnup in a distant town days later seeminglyno worse for wear. Obviously, the intelli-gence tests were missing something thatwas very important.

—from “Pathways to Change andDevelopment: The Life of a SchoolPsychologist” by Stephen F. Poland, in Career Paths in Psychology, edited by Robert J. Sternberg

604 Chapter 21 / Psychology: Present and Future

a career. I was leaningtoward business administra-tion, but my sister just grad-uated with an M.B.A. Idon’t want to be just likeher. I’ve got more choicesthan I can handle.”

This conversation isimaginary but typical forjuniors and seniors in highschool. You do have manyoptions. Because you havespent a period of time study-ing psychology, it may bebeneficial to respond to ques-tions about psychology:What will I do with what I

have learned? Was it worth it if this is the only psychology course I ever take?What careers in psychology are open to me? To help you find answers tothese questions, this section offers several descriptions of opportunities in psy-chology careers. The careers described here, though, are only a few in the vastfield of psychology and related fields.

What Are Employers Looking For? Employers are most likely to hire someone who offers special skills. In

psychology, as in many other fields, job choices are limited if you haveonly a high school diploma. Surprisingly, when you have a Ph.D., you alsohave relatively few choices, but by that time you have chosen to fine-tuneyour education and experience a specific kind of job—you are a specialist.

Those with a bachelor’s degree in psychology may have the mostoptions with the widest array of possible employers. Moreover, psy-chology is a logical undergraduate major for those planning graduate workin such fields as sociology, social work, law, medicine, or education. Humanbehavior plays a key role in all of these areas.

Some Career Options Psychology is both a science and a profession. As a science, psycholo-

gists study how people perceive, think, feel, and act. In the professionalarena, careers that are based on psychological principles seek to predicthow people will act; help people modify their behavior; and help organi-zations, businesses, and communities to change.

Crisis Hot Line AdviserEmployer: a large hospitalCan you do it? A person holding this job might even be a senior in highschool. For most crisis intervention programs, applicants must com-plete a training program. A county hospital, for instance, might offer such

Areas of Expertise of Ph.D. PsychologistsIn the past 20 years, the number of people receiving doctoratedegrees in the field of psychology has grown by more than 180 per-cent. Which area of expertise has enjoyed the greatest growth?

Figure 21.1

1975 1985 1995

35% 44% 50%

17% 17% 16%

14% 14% 13%

5% 4% 3%

3% 3% 3%

26% 18% 15%

Clinical/Counseling/School

Experimental/Comparative/Physiological

Developmental/Child/Social/Personality

Educational

Industrial/Organizational

Other psychology subfields

Source: NSF/SRS Surveys of Doctorate Recipients. Compiled by APA Research Office, May 1999.

Reading CheckHow is psychology both

a science and a profession?

crisis intervention program: short-term psycho-logical first aid that helps indi-viduals and families deal withemergencies or highly stressfulsituations


training over three weekends. Following training, a typical assignmentwould involve two 4-hour shifts a week.What’s involved? Crisis hot line personnel respond primarily to two kindsof problems. One involves the immediate, possibly life-threatening situationthat can arise as a result of a personal or family crisis—perhaps an argu-ment or the unexpected death of a loved one. Drug use—whether fromwithdrawal or overdose—can also bring about an immediate need for help.The other type of problem is the crisis evolving from long-term stress, suchas that experienced in the family, on the job, or in a failure to develop one’scareer. Crises like these are not as threatening but still need to be resolved.

A person handling a hot line will have a list of psychologists and psy-chiatrists as well as information about a wide array of treatment facilitiesand programs operating in the vicinity. This job requires being able tocalm the caller, identify his or her problem, and help that caller to see thewisdom—once the immediate crisis has been dealt with—of contactingthe most appropriate agency for long-term follow-up.

Word Processor SalespersonEmployer: a local computer dealerCan you do it? People with an interest in psychology are likely to have ahigher-than-average interest in behavior—both theirs and others. Thatinterest—even if backed only by a high school diploma—is a vital ele-ment of the successful salesperson. One report suggests that the bestsalespeople are motivated by the need for status, control, respect, routine,accomplishment, stimulation, and honesty. With those needs met, asalesperson—regardless of level of education—will feel happy. A basicunderstanding of people’s driving forces—their needs for achievement,affiliation, and safety—is but one aspectof psychology that would aid someoneseeking a career in sales.What’s involved? The key requirementmay be experience. One psychologisthas suggested that you cannot educatesomeone to be good in sales, but sensi-tivity to others can be improved bytraining. You must also be persistent,skillful at language, able to queryprospective customers, and able to relatetheir needs to those answered by theproduct you are offering.

Mental Health AssistantEmployer: a senior citizen service centerCan you do it? This is a new careerfield, usually requiring at least an asso-ciate degree. An associate degree is

Try Out aCareer inPsychology

As you search the want ads in your local newspaper,you may not see very many entry-level job openings forpsychologists. There are jobs, though, that can expose youto psychology-related work. Look for jobs that utilize“people skills” such as communicating or relating to people,“analytical skills” such as figuring out and resolving prob-lems, “writing skills” such as writing logical reports, and“research skills” such as using statistics or tables to analyzeissues. These skills are called for in a variety of jobs, such asworking for case workers, business managers, probation orcorrections officers, and human services.


awarded after a two-yearcourse preparing for para-professional occupationsin nursing homes, com-munity mental healthcenters, centers dealingwith mental retardation,or even special-educationcenters for the variouslydisabled in public schools.What’s involved? Typicallysupervised by a staff psy-chologist, an assistanthelps with or conductsadmission interviews. Heor she may be respon-sible—under supervision—for administering variouspsychological tests, eitherto new patients or toassess the progress ofthose already admitted.

Personnel DirectorEmployer: a large depart-ment store, for exampleCan you do it? The suc-cessful applicant is likelyto have a bachelor’sdegree in psychology,having concentrated oncourses involving inter-viewing, test constructionand interpretation, statis-tics, and—perhaps sur-

prisingly to you—law. Such a person might also have taken a minor in management courses in a university’s College of BusinessAdministration. He or she would stress organizational and quantitativeskills. This is not an entry-level job, however. Some prior experiencewith the employer’s policies is a definite requirement.What’s involved? A personnel director may participate in a wide array ofactivities, depending on the nature and interest of his or her employer.Clearly, the decisions to hire and fire would be this person’s responsibil-ity, especially for the support staff in any organization. Such a personmight also develop programs to improve or maintain staff skills—in sales,interpersonal sensitivity, or any other skill involved in conducting thecompany’s business.

L inda L. McCarley, an art therapist, is founder and director ofthe Art Therapy Institute in Dallas, Texas. She helps people

create drawings, paintings, sculptures, and other art forms that provide a glimpse into their inner world.

How does art therapy work? Have you ever felt better afterexpressing yourself with music, dance, drama, or art? That isbecause words may not adequately express some of your deepestfeelings or life experiences. Artmaking provides another avenue ofself-expression, helps release tension, and is known to be lifeenhancing. As we can see by studying the images etched on thewalls of caves dating back to ancient times, people have alwaysrelied upon imagery to express their most significant life experi-ences. The art made by people throughout history enriches ourunderstanding of those people.

Similarly, art therapists gain an understanding of their clientsthough the process of making art in therapy. Art therapists set thestage for self-discovery and healing by facilitating their clients’ cre-ative expressions.

Linda L. McCarley1946–

“Artmaking opens windows to the inner world.”

Profiles In Psychology


School PsychologistEmployer: a city school systemCan you do it? A master’s degree is a must for thisposition; an undergraduate major in psychology isdesirable. In addition, most school psychologists mustbe licensed or certified in their state of employment,which involves taking a test.What’s involved? In bigger districts, you might stay inone school, but many school psychologists dividetheir time among a number of schools. They usuallywork with children experiencing the normal array ofproblems in school. A school psychologist might givereading, aptitude, interest, or intelligence tests andmust be skillful in interpreting them. At other times heor she might work directly with the children or youngadults in school or with the families of those students.

Clinical PsychologistEmployer: yourself (self-employed), government,business, hospital, prison, or nonprofit organizationCan you do it? To use this title in most states requiresa Ph.D. (a Doctor of Philosophy) or a Psy.D. (a Doctorof Psychology). The Psy.D. is a degree developed inthe 1970s. In a Psy.D. program, a student gains skill inpsychotherapy, undergoing intensive training in test-ing, interviewing, and giving supervised therapy.What’s involved? A practicing clinical psychologist isoften self-employed. Thus, required skills include thoseneeded to run any small business, in addition to knowl-edge of testing and practical experience with the limitsand strengths of various forms of therapy. He or shemust develop working relations with other clinicians inthe area—psychiatrists, medical doctors, and othercontacts in local hospitals and mental health facilities.From such sources come the patient/client referralsthat are vital to one’s success as a psychotherapist.

A typical day might involve 8 to 10 hours in vari-ous stages of psychotherapy with different individuals.The hours have to be offered at times when clients arefree to visit, so this may not be a traditional 9-to-5 job.Other types of therapy a clinical psychologist mightoffer are group therapy or consultation with othertherapeutic organizations, such as AlcoholicsAnonymous. It is also possible, of course, to utilize thesame skills as a clinical psychologist in a state-supported mental hospital, a Veterans Administrationhospital, or a community mental health center.

Consumer PsychologyConsumer psychologists study the processespeople go through as they purchase goodsand services. Organizations hire them toresearch and answer questions such as“What do consumers think of us?” “Howcan we better serve our customers?” Why might consumer psychologists be involved in employee training?

Figure 21.2

Human Factors EngineeringHuman factors engineers, or engineering

psychologists, help design machines andequipment such as computer systems, auto-mobiles, office equipment, and householdappliances to match human abilities and lim-itations so the equipment can be operatedefficiently and safely. Human factors engi-neers draw on physics, anatomy, psychol-ogy, and sociology as well as contributionsfrom teachers and communications expertsto analyze and solve problems. Consider thisexample: Why is the gas pedal on the rightside of your car’s floor rather than on theleft? The reason is for more efficient use.Most people are right-side dominant anduse the gas pedal more than the brake.


Consulting PsychologistEmployer: a management consulting firmCan you do it? A Ph.D. is required for this job. Such aperson might spend graduate school in an indus-trial/organizational psychology program learningmanagement practices, testing strategies, interper-sonal behavioral strategies, and intervention tech-niques in complex organizations.What’s involved? A consultant—by the very nature ofhis or her job—must offer an array of skills not nor-mally represented among the full-time employees ofcompanies that hire consultants. Thus, a consultant’sjob tends to be short term. A consultant might, forinstance, advise a company’s top management on how

to take human performance limits into account in the design of a controlboard for a nuclear power plant. He or she might be involved in all aspectsof the design of an interstate highway—signs, bridges and crossover devices,and lane-flow control.

Future Psychology Career Options As psychologists in every specialty area meet new challenges, new

areas of psychology begin to develop. Often a new area of psychologydevelops as a result of a merging of other areas. For example, the rela-tively new area of health psychology combines aspects of physiological,social, counseling, and clinical psychology. Health psychologists focus onthe role the psychological functions of an individual play on the health ofthat individual. A health psychologist might research the origins of obe-sity and try to find and apply effective treatments. A health psychologistmight also deal with how stress is related to illness.

?Did You Know?Did You Know?

Post-War Psychology The demand forthe services of counseling and clinical psy-chologists always increases dramaticallytoward the end of a war. This occurred atthe end of World War II, the Korean War,the Vietnam War, and the Persian Gulf War.Counseling psychologists are needed tohelp servicemen and women adjust to civil life, shift war-industry workers, andrehabilitate the wounded and emotionallydisturbed war veterans.

1. Review the Vocabulary What types ofsituations does a crisis intervention pro-gram handle?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Use a graphicorganizer similar to the one below tolist a possible psychology career undereach discipline.

3. Recall Information What are mostemployers seeking in employees?

4. Think Critically How might a degreein psychology help you design a popu-lar Web page or market yourself as anup-and-coming actor?

Careers in Psychology

Assessment

5. Application Activity Explore your long-termgoals by outlining a possible educational andcareer path that you might follow. In your outlinebe sure to indicate your career goal and how youplan to achieve that goal. Explain why you haveselected that goal.

Medicine Law Business


nonscientifically controlled occasions, Gellar didindeed bend and break metal objects withoutphysically touching them. In 1974 psychologistsconducted several experiments on Gellar. Theyfilmed these experiments and carefully reviewedthem to see if Gellar had used “slight-of-hand”tricks. In one instance, Gellar unbalanced a preci-sion scientific scale. Also, he seemingly bent asteel band that normally requires about 100pounds of pressure. He accomplished both ofthese feats without physical contact. Therefore,Gellar represented proof of the existence of para-psychological phenomenon in humans, or did he?

Results: The events surrounding Gellar werehighly controversial, but on Gellar’s part, they were

highly profitable. Gellar began to make appear-ances in various locations, demonstrating

his amazing abilities. In these demonstra-tions Gellar bent metal spoons or

other such objects. Gellarreceived an invitation toappear on national televisionand perform his miraculous

feats. When it was time to per-form his mind control abilities on national televi-sion, though, Gellar could not deliver. Gellarclaimed that something was blocking his ability toproject his mind-controlling thoughts onto thespoons. It was discovered later that before all ofhis performances, Gellar had access to theobjects he was going to manipulate with his mind.On national television, however, Gellar’s personalset of objects had been switched with a new set.

One may wonder why we used a failed exam-ple to describe the study of parapsychology. Weused this example to show how difficult it is toprove the existence of such phenomena. Perhapsin the future, breakthroughs will be made in thestudy of parapsychology. As for now, skepticismseems to prevail.

ParapsychologyPeriod of Study: 1882 and 1975

Introduction: Behavior types that seem todeviate from normal behavior are sometimes leftunexplained. This area of study is known as para-psychology. Parapsychology literally means“alongside psychology.” Parapsychology is notconsidered to be in the mainstream of psychology,but its interesting yet controversial issues haveattracted many psychologists and other interestedindividuals. Parapsychology suggests thathumans possess senses other than the knownseven: vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch,balance, and body senses. This area is oftenmet with skepticism. Many people do notbelieve in the possibility of seemingly “supernatural”events. However, there havebeen some events that psy-chologists cannot otherwise explain.

Hypothesis: Those who study parapsycho-logical events form hypotheses, which generallyconform to consistent ideas about theseobscure events. The foundations of thesehypotheses are similar because parapsychologi-cal concepts cannot easily be studied.Parapsychologists try to eliminate all other sci-entific explanations for an event.

Method: In 1882 scientists established the firstorganization to study parapsychology—the Societyof Psychical Research—in London. The Americanversion of this society was formed in Boston threeyears later. These organizations focused on medi-umship, or communication with those who havedied. As time passed, other phenomena began tobe studied, such as telepathy (the ability ofpeople to communicate without using ordi-nary senses), clairvoyance (the ability toexperience an event without physically beingthere), and psychokinesis (controlling objectswith the mind).

Perhaps the greatest example of psy-chokinesis to date is that of Uri Gellar. Gellarclaimed he could bend and break metalobjects by using mind control. On many

Analyzing the Case Study 1. What is parapsychology?

2. What abilities did Gellar claim to have?

3. Critical Thinking Do you believe that some peoplehave parapsychological abilities? Why or why not?


Although most people seem to have an accurate idea of what doc-tors or lawyers do, many people do not realize what psychologistsdo. These people probably do not realize, then, the many contri-

butions to life that the science of human behavior has produced.

PSYCHOLOGY’S ROLE IN MENTAL HEALTHOf all of psychology’s contributions, perhaps its most significant is the

development of forms of professional helping, including psychotherapy.An early step forward came in the 1790s through the pioneering effortsof Philippe Pinel, a French physician and a founder of psychiatry. Pinelunchained patients who were held in mental wards, some of whom had

Psychology’s Contributions

� Main IdeaPsychology has made many contribu-tions to society by promoting humanwelfare, clarifying assessment methods,explaining human behavior, and helpinghumans better understand their world.

� Vocabulary• ACT• SAT• forensic psychology• industrial/organizational psychology• sports psychology• visualization• gerontology

� Objectives• Describe psychologists’ contributions

in everyday life.• Summarize psychology’s challenges

for the future.

Reader’s GuideExploring Psychology

MisinformedA few years ago, a psychology profes-

sor, famous in his field for developing newexperimental and statistical methods, gotinto a taxi. He started a friendly conversa-tion with the driver and when asked whathe did for a living, the professor repliedthat he was a psychologist. “Oh yeah? Mysister went to see a psychologist,” repliedthe driver. “She’s really a nut-case. Heywait, can you read my mind? I’d better becareful what I say!” The professor reportsthat he now replies to such questions bysaying that he is a “research scientist.”

—from Opportunities in Psychology Careers byCharles M. Super and Donald E. Super, 1994


been restrained for more than 20 years.Pinel argued against the prevailing beliefthat the mentally ill were possessed bydemons. Moreover, he thought mental ill-ness could be treated. Mainly due to hisefforts, France became a leader in improv-ing conditions for the mentally ill.

Despite the progress in France, morethan half a century passed before similarefforts were exerted in the United States.After discovering that the mentally ill werebeing jailed along with criminals, teacherand social reformer Dorothea Dix becamethe chief spokesperson for reform. Her per-sonal crusade in the 1840s aroused interestin the problems of mental illness and led tomore enlightened treatment of the mentallyill in Canada and Great Britain, as well as inthe United States.

A former mental patient, Clifford Beersbecame the guiding force in the early growthof the modern mental health movement.Beers’s own account of his illness and recov-ery, A Mind That Found Itself, first publishednearly 90 years ago, has motivated students, mental health workers, and con-cerned individuals to promote better psychiatric care in communities, inschools, and in hospitals. The book set into motion Beers’s plan to improveconditions. In 1908 Beers founded the Connecticut Society for MentalHygiene, the first organization of its type. In its charter, the ConnecticutSociety pledged to eliminate restraints on patients, improve standards of carefor the mentally retarded, prevent mental disorders, preserve mental health,and provide information on mental illness to the public.

PSYCHOLOGY’S ROLE IN TESTING You probably had your first encounter with a psychologist while in

elementary school. Most students are given IQ tests or other tests at anearly age. Psychologists have played a leading role in devising and updat-ing these tests, as well as other tests in higher education that assess per-sonal skills. Many of you have taken or will take one or both of the twomajor standardized college entrance exams: the Scholastic AssessmentTest (SAT) and the American College Testing Proficiency ExaminationProgram (ACT). Developed in 1959, the current ACT places greateremphasis on scientific concepts and abstract reading skills and lessemphasis on factual material than the earlier version. Nearly 1 millionhigh school seniors take the ACT each year. The SAT, taken by about1.2 million high school seniors annually, was redesigned in 1994 to givemore weight to abstract thinking skills.

ACT: a standardized test that consists of four academictests that measure academicdevelopment

SAT: a standardized test that isan admission requirement atsome colleges; the test mea-sures verbal and mathematicalreasoning abilities

Before Psychological Illnesses Were Understood

Often described as the father of scientific psychiatry,Philippe Pinel argued that the mentally ill requiredhumane treatment, sympathy, and guidance, not thebeatings, imprisonment, and ridicule they so oftensuffered. Why was Pinel’s behavior considered revolutionary?

Figure 21.3


PSYCHOLOGY’S ROLE IN EVERYDAY LIVING With more than half of all mothers and an even higher percentage of

fathers working outside the home, day-care and out-of-home nurturingand learning are significant issues. Researchers note that day care appearsto have few negative effects on children and actually promotes develop-ment of social skills (Bukatko & Daehler, 1992). Interestingly, childrenwith experience in day care tend to be more assertive and aggressive.Alison Clarke-Stewart (1989) has suggested that this may simply resultfrom the fact that day-care children think at a more advanced level buthave not yet developed the social skills with which to implement theirplans smoothly.

Harry Harlow’s work led to the idea that the attachment of childrento their caregivers is made stronger by physical contact. That, in turn, ledto the demonstration that breast-feeding versus bottle-feeding reallymakes no difference in the parent-child attachment. It is the holding, notthe feeding, that is important.

Psychologists play a role in designing and assessing tools for learningin a variety of media: for example, their understanding of the principles oflearning contributed to the development of the PBS series “Sesame Street.”Studies show that almost 60 percent of the preschool children who watchthat program at least five times a week can recite the entire alphabet cor-rectly. Originally designed to provide creative ways to educate childrenwith skills required in school—such as spelling, counting, and newwords—this program, as the data indicate, has met its goal.

Some of B.F. Skinner’s ideas on learning have been implemented intocomputer software designs. The ideas of feedback, prior knowledge andknowledge of results, and reinforcement play important roles in games aswell as educational programs.

The work of many psy-chologists led to a clearerunderstanding about chal-lenges facing men andwomen as they age. As theAmerican population ages,increased understanding ofthe abilities of the aged isan area in which psychol-ogy must make continuedcontributions.

PSYCHOLOGYTODAY

Contemporary psychol-ogy can be grouped intoexperimental fields andapplied fields. Experimental

PSYCHOLOGY

Student Web Activity Visit the UnderstandingPsychology Web site at psychology.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 21—Student Web Activities foran activity about psychol-ogy’s contributions.

Then and NowAlthough it is considered a new science, psychology has come a longway. Some of the questions of early psychologists, such as how per-ception works or why we reason, have been answered. Other ques-tions, such as nature versus nurture, remain the focus of research.What have psychologists contributed to everyday living?

Figure 21.4

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/psychology/psych2001/chapter21/webact.html


Some Significant Dates in the History of Psychology The history of psychology reflects the origins of many contemporarypsychological issues and questions. In 1649 René Descartes sug-gested that the body and soul are separate. How might contem-porary psychologists label the “body” and “soul” today?

Figure 21.5

psychologists use a variety of scientific methods to study psychologicalprocesses. Applied psychologists put knowledge of psychology to worksolving human problems. Yet this distinction is not always sharp. Both theexperimental and the applied psychologists gather the available evidenceand offer the best they find. Both study behavior, and both use similarprocesses in similar situations. A major difference is that applied psycho-logists search for immediate solutions; experimental psychologists for long-range answers.


Current Trends The American Psychological Association (APA) is a scientific and pro-

fessional society of psychologists and educators. Founded in 1892, it is themajor psychological association in the United States and is made of morethan 50 divisions, each representing a specific area, type of work orresearch setting, or activity. Some divisions are research-oriented, whileothers are advocacy groups. Together they are a cross section of thediverse nature of psychology.

Beginning in the 1970s, some members expressed dissatisfaction with thedirection of the APA. These critics feared that the APA was becoming a pro-fessional instead of an academic organization. As a result, a new organiza-tion for academic and science-oriented psychologists, the AmericanPsychological Society (APS), was founded in 1988; in five years it had grownto a membership of 15,000. With more than 159,000 members and affiliates,the APA is the world’s largest organization of psychologists.

Another organization, Psi Chi—a professional and scientific fraternity—has chapters on many college and university campuses. Members of Psi Chihold meetings and help orient psychology students to the field.

According to a survey completed by the APA Research Office (1996,1999), about 43 percent of those who study psychology obtain master’sdegrees in counseling, 32 percent in clinical psychology, and 15 percentin school psychology. The remaining respondents to the survey obtainedtheir degrees in traditional research and other subfields, such as indus-trial/organizational psychology, general and educational psychology,and experimental psychology (see Figure 21.6).

The United States Bureau of Labor places psychology among the fastest-growing fields into the twenty-first century. In addition, the number of women

in psychology has beenincreasing rapidly. In theearly 1990s, women held 60percent of the civilian jobs in psychology, and womenreceived more than two-thirds of the bachelor’s andmaster’s degrees conferredduring that time. Althoughpsychology is still a male-dominated field, the propor-tion of women in psychologyis greater than in most other scientific disciplines(Simonton, 1992).

Ethnic minorities haveindeed been a minority inthe field of psychology.This trend, however, alsoseems to be changing. Inthe past decade, a relatively

Reading CheckHow does the work of

experimental and applied psy-chologists differ?

Employment of Ph.D. PsychologistsFigure 21.6

Universities/colleges34.4 %

Other educational settings

5.5%

*This category includes businesses and incorporated private practices.

Source: 1997 Survey of Doctorate Recipients, National Research Council and National Science Foundation. Compiled by APA Research Office, March 1999.

Private, forprofit*21.9%

Self-employed16.9%

Private, nonprofit10.1%

Federal government4.2%

State/local government7.0%

Psychology is one of the most diverse fields to enter. Almost all psy-chologists are trained at colleges and universities, and therefore all psychologists are familiar with the academic setting. Where do mostpeople who obtain Ph.D.s in psychology work?

Psi Chi is the national honorsociety of psychology.


larger number of doctorates have been awarded tominority group members. The increasing diversity ofthe field of psychology is important. As diverse peo-ple enter the field, they propose new perspectives onissues of psychology and behavior. Although newperspectives can be controversial, they pave the wayfor scientific advancement (Super & Super, 1994).

Fields of Psychology Forensic psychology is a branch of applied

psychology that studies and makes practical sugges-tions about the workings of the law. The work ofpsychologist Elizabeth Loftus has played a pivotal role (see Chapter 10).Many forensic psychologists study criminal behavior. Still others do workon the reliability of eyewitnesses, the effects on children who appear incourt, counseling victims, and the jury selection process. A lawyer-psychologist often has both a Ph.D. and a law degree (Hofer, 1991).

Work and the working environment are the provinces of industrial/organizational psychology, or, as the field is often called, organiza-tional psychology (Coutts, 1991). Psychologists in this field apply theirfindings to help businesses and industries operate more efficiently andhumanely through improving methods of selection and training, anddeveloping new organizational and management strategies. Otherindustrial/organizational psychologists concentrate on such issues aslabor-union relations, rules defining harassment, job satisfaction, andworker motivations and incentives.

Sports psychology, a field that developed during the 1980s, is animportant part of training for many amateur and professional athletes.Sports psychologists apply the principles of psychology to sports activities.Some focus on maximizing athletic performance through visualization—mentally rehearsing the steps of a complete, successful performance—improving concentration or relaxation or reducing negative thoughts thatmay interfere with performance. Other areas of study include the psycho-logical and physiological benefits of sports participation, violence, ethics insports, and the design of safe equipment (Durkin, 1991).

The Challenges for Psychology Social change, urban problems, early learning, psychology and

minorities, and the reduction of violence are psychology’s challengestoday. One way to determine future directions of psychology is by ana-lyzing the trends of age in the population. The average age of the citizensin North America is going steadily upward; there are more people overage 65 in the United States and Canada now than at any time in the his-tory of either country. That creates new problems for psychologists tostudy and new careers in both research and service. It also suggests agrowing field in a specialty such as sports psychology and another indevelopmental psychology—gerontology, the study of aging.

industrial/organizationalpsychology: deals with thepsychology of the workplace

visualization: mentallyrehearsing the steps involved ina successful performance orprocess

gerontology: the study ofaging

sports psychology: studiesathletics and athletic performance

forensic psychology: dealswith diagnosis, evaluation,treatment, and testimonyregarding the law and criminalbehavior

?Did You Know?Did You Know?Funding The United States federal gov-ernment invests about one twenty-fifth of 1percent of the national budget in psycho-logical research. The APA and APS sendrepresentatives to Capitol Hill to appeal formore support. The government spendspainfully little to study the nature of humanbehavior.


At the other end of the age spectrum are other factors that mayimpact future jobs for psychologists. Consider the traditional killers ofchildren—measles, chicken pox, scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, mumps,tuberculosis, and polio. All of these problems—assuming a child has hadhis or her proper vaccinations—are gone. The top three killers of childrenthrough adolescence in our society now are accidents, violence, anddrugs. These are not physiological problems like our old enemies—they arepsychological problems. Many of the problems that face society today arebehavioral problems—that is, they can be solved only through changingbehavior and attitudes.

Where Do You Go From Here?As you come to the end of this textbook, it is important to consider

not only the future of psychology but also how psychology plays a rolein your future. Whether you choose further education and a career in psy-chology or not, you should not stop thinking critically about and seekingto explain your behavior and the behavior of others.

The information presented in this textbook does not represent theabsolute truth. Psychology is a science—it is a process of trying to under-stand the world around us. As you encounter articles in newspapers andmagazines concerning psychology, try to read them critically. Read thematerial, think about it, and question it. Analyze the evidence and theauthor’s conclusions. Remember, though, that all conclusions are tentative. Ask yourself: Are there better ways to approach this issue orquestion? Use what you have learned in this course to determine yourown hypotheses and theories and to critically analyze what you read,hear, and experience every day.

1. Review the Vocabulary What dosports psychologists do?

2. Visualize the Main Idea Using agraphic organizer similar to the onebelow, outline the challenges psycholo-gists face.

3. Recall Information Why must psy-chologists study aging?

4. Think Critically Consider what youhave learned in this psychology course.What information will be most useful toyou during your lifetime? Why? In whattypes of situations during your life doyou think you will use this information?Explain.

Challenges for Psychologists

Assessment

5. Application Activity Visit a large bookstore andbrowse through the titles of books dealing withpsychology. What topics seem to be the most pop-ular? Which books seem to be the most helpful?Which books seem most interesting to you? Why?Based on your observations, forecast several topicsthat could result in a popular psychology book.

Summary and Vocabulary

Chapter Vocabularycrisis intervention program (p. 604)ACT (p. 611)SAT (p. 611)forensic psychology (p. 615)industrial/organizational psychology (p. 615)sports psychology (p. 615)visualization (p. 615)gerontology (p. 615)

Psychology’s Contributions� The most significant contribution of psychology is

the development of forms of professional helping,including psychotherapy.

� Psychologists have played a leading role in devis-ing and updating educational testing programs.

� The study of psychology has implications foreveryday living, especially in the areas of raisingchildren, improving learning, and understandingthe process of aging.

� The common link in careers in psychology is thedesire to understand behavior.

� Psychology can be grouped into experimentalfields and applied fields.

� Experimental psychologists use a variety of scien-tific methods to study psychological processes.

� Applied psychologists put knowledge of psy-chology to work solving human problems.

� According to the United States Bureau of Labor,psychology is among the fastest-growing fieldsinto the twenty-first century.

� The American Psychological Association (APA) isa scientific and professional society of psycholo-gists and educators.

� The American Psychological Society (APS)is an organization for academic and science-oriented psychologists.

� Fields of psychology that have potential for futuregrowth include forensic psychology, industrial/organizational psychology, and sports psychology.

� Many problems that face society today, such asviolence, drugs, and AIDS, require behavioralsolutions.

Psychology has made many contributions to society in the past. Itsplace in the future is secure because it helps people resolve issuesand problems. The field of psychology is among the fastest-grow-ing into the twenty-first century.

Main Idea: Psychologyhas made many contri-butions to society by pro-moting human welfare,clarifying assessmentmethods, explaininghuman behavior, andhelping humans betterunderstand their world.

Careers in Psychology� A bachelor’s degree in psychology affords many

options with a wide array of possible employers.� As a profession, careers that are based on psycho-

logical principles seek to predict how people willact; help people modify their behavior; and helporganizations, businesses, and communitieschange.

Main Idea: Humanbehavior plays a key rolein many areas of study.Studying psychology canprepare you for manycareer opportunities.


Assessment

Self-Check QuizVisit the Understanding Psychology Web site at psychology.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 21—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Recalling Facts1. Explain what research shows about the effects

of day care on children.2. Explain the projections for the elderly popula-

tion into the twenty-first century. How does thisimpact psychology?

3. Using a diagram similar to the one below, list thesimilarities and differences in the work of appliedpsychologists and experimental psychologists.

4. List three organizations for psychologistsand/or students of psychology.

5. Identify two careers that require a backgroundin psychology and briefly describe the careers.

Critical Thinking1. Analyzing Concepts Define job satisfaction in

your own words. Do you think it is possible tomeasure job satisfaction? Explain.

2. Evaluating Information Do college admissiontests really predict success in college? Why orwhy not?

3. Synthesizing Information There are manytypes of mental health professionals. What com-mon characteristics do they all share?

4. Making Inferences Name three jobs in psy-chology that you think will offer good opportu-nities for employment and explain why. Namethree jobs that you think will offer few opportu-nities and explain why.

5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare andcontrast the educational requirements and theresponsibilities of a crisis hot line adviser, a mental health assistant, and a consulting psychologist.

PSYCHOLOGY


Reviewing VocabularyChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

1. A(n) __________ is often involved in helpingbusinesses operate more efficiently.

2. A(n) __________ may give reading, aptitude,interest, or intelligence tests to middle or highschool students.

3. __________ is the study of aging.4. A(n) __________ is often self-employed, prac-

ticing some form of psychotherapy.5. Athletes sometimes use the process of

__________—mentally rehearsing the steps of asuccessful performance—to reduce negativethoughts that may interfere with performance.

6. Nearly 1 million high school seniors take the__________, which emphasizes scientific con-cepts and abstract reading skills.

7. About 1.2 million high school seniors take the__________, which was redesigned in 1994 togive more weight to abstract thinking skills.

8. A(n) _________ can respond to an individual’slife-threatening situation or long-term stress.

9. A(n) _________ is involved in working on thereliability of witnesses in a court proceeding.

10. An important part of training for many profes-sional athletes is the field of __________.

a. ACTb. SATc. forensic psychologyd. industrial/organizational

psychologiste. sports psychology

f. visualization g. gerontology h. crisis intervention

program i. clinical psychologist j. school psychologist

AppliedPsychology

ExperimentalPsychologySimilarities

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/psychology/psych2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=006&CHAPTER=21&TITLE=Psychology:+Present+and+Future

Psychology Projects1. Psychology’s Contributions Find out about the

historical treatment of psychological problems.You might focus on the treatments used in theMiddle Ages and in the early nineteenth centu-ry. Share your findings in an oral report.

2. Psychology Today and in the Future In recentyears, astronauts in the U.S. space program havespent extended time in space in cramped andcrowded quarters. A recent field of psychologyis space psychology. Psychologists in this fieldstudy the behavioral challenges of spaceflight.Find out about this field and the kinds of issuesit addresses. Present your findings in an infor-mational pamphlet.

Technology ActivityOne of the major contributions ofpsychology is in the designing and

assessing of tools for learning. Find examples of edu-cational computer software. Find out whatapproach to learning is incorporated in the soft-ware—feedback, reinforcement, and so on. Evaluatethe effectiveness of the software.

Psychology JournalReview your journal entry. Do you feeloptimistic or pessimistic that those prob-

lems can be solved? Why or why not? In what specific ways might psychology help solve theseproblems? Write answers in your journal.

Assessment


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Practice and assess key socialstudies skills with GlencoeSkillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 2.

Building SkillsInterpreting a Graph Job satisfaction—studied by industrial/organizationalpsychologists—is an issue for manypeople. Various factors contribute to jobsatisfaction. Review the graph, thenanswer the questions that follow.

1. According to this graph, what threejob characteristics do most peoplefind important for job satisfaction?

2. With which job characteristic werepeople most satisfied? Least satisfied?

3. Select an area on the graph. Howmight an industrial/organizationalpsychologist help managers and/oremployees in this area?

See the Skills Handbook, page628, for an explanation of

interpreting graphs.

100

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Source: Hugick & Leonard, 1991; based on Rathus & Nevid, 1995.

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Chap21

Technology

Transcript of Chap21