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Copyright 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Chapter6 Motivation

Copyri ght 2011 by the McGraw-H il l Companies, Inc. Al l r ights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin


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Learning Goals

What is motivation?

What three beliefs help determine work effort,

according to expectancy theory?

What two qualities make goals strong predictors oftask performance, according to goal setting theory?

What does it mean to be equitably treated according

to equity theory, and how do employees respond to

inequity?


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Learning Goals, Contd

What is psychological empowerment, and

what four beliefs determine empowerment

levels?

How does motivation affect job performance

and organizational commitment?

What steps can organizations take to increase

employee motivation?


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What is Motivation?

Motivationis defined as a set of energetic forces

that originates both within and outside an employee,

initiates work-related effort, and determines its

direction, intensity, and persistence.Motivation is a critical consideration because job

performance often requires high levels of both ability and

motivation.

Employees who are engaged completely invest themselvesand their energies into their jobs.


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Motivation and Effort

Fi

gure6

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Discussion Questions

What makes you decide to direct your effort

to work assignments rather than taking a

break or wasting time?

What makes you decide to be a good citizen

by helping out a colleague or another

student?


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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theorydescribes the cognitive

process that employees go through to make

choices among different voluntary responses.

Employee behavior is directed toward pleasure

and away from pain or, more generally, toward

certain outcomes and away from others.


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Expectancy Theory

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Expectancy Theory, Contd

Expectancyrepresents the belief that exerting a high

level of effort will result in the successful

performance of some task.

Expectancy is a subjective probability, ranging from 0 to 1that a specific amount of effort will result in a specific level

of performance (abbreviated E P).

Self-efficacyisdefined as the belief that a person has the

capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required fortask success.

Past accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion,

emotional cues


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Sources of Self-Efficacy

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Instrumentalityrepresents the belief that successful

performance will result in some outcome(s).

Instrumentality is a set of subjective probabilities, each

ranging from 0 to 1 that successful performance willbring a set of outcomes (abbreviated P O).

Valencereflects the anticipated value of the outcomes

associated with performance (abbreviated V).

Can be positive, negative, or zero


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What exactly makes some outcomes more

positively valenced than others?

In general, outcomes are deemed more

attractive when they help satisfy needs.

Needscan be defined as cognitive groupings or

clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having

critical psychological or physiologicalconsequences.


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Commonly Studied Needs in OB

Table

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Extrinsic motivationis motivation that is

controlled by some contingency that depends

on task performance.

Intrinsic motivationis motivation that is felt

when task performance serves as its own

reward.

OB on Screen

The Dark Knight


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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Outcomes

Table

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Total motivational force to perform a given actioncan be described using the following formula:

Motivational Force = E P x *(P O) x V]

The symbol in the equation signifies that

instrumentalities and valences are judged with various

outcomes in mind.

Motivational force equals zero if any one of the threebeliefs is zero.


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Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theoryviews goals as the primary

drivers of the intensity and persistence of

effort.

Assigning employees specific and difficult goals

will result in higher levels of performance.

What is a difficult goal?


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Goal Difficulty and Task Performance

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Settings and Tasks Used in Goal Setting

Research

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Goal Setting Theory, Contd

Why do specific and difficult goals have suchpositive effects?

Assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes

peoples own self-set goals the internalizedgoals that people use to monitor their own taskprogress.

Goals trigger the creation oftask strategies,

defined as learning plans and problem-solvingapproaches used to achieve successfulperformance.


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Goal Setting Theory, Contd

Moderators on Task Performance

Feedbackconsists of updates on employee

progress toward goal attainment.

Task complexityreflects how complicated the

information and actions involved in a task are, as

well as how much the task changes.

Goal commitmentis defined as the degree towhich a person accepts a goal and is determined

to try to reach it.


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Goal Setting Theory

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Strategies for Fostering Goal Commitment

Table

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Equity Theory

Equity theoryacknowledges that motivation

doesnt just depend on your own beliefs and

circumstances but also on what happens to

other people.

Employees create a mental ledger of the

outcomes (or rewards) they get from their job

duties.


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Equity Theory, Contd

You compare your ratio of outcomes and inputsto the ratio of some comparison other some

person who seems to provide an intuitive frame

of reference for judging equity. Cognitive calculus

Ratio of outcomes to inputs is balanced between

you and your comparison other.

My Outcomes

My inputsvs. Others Outcomes

Others Inputs


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Equity Theory, Contd

Cognitive calculus, contd

Your ratio of outcomes to inputs is less than your

comparison others ratio.

Any imbalance in ratios triggers equity distressaninternal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring

balance to the ratios.

Your ratio of outcomes to inputs is greater than

your comparison others ratio.

Change your comparison other.

Internal versus external comparisons


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Some Outcomes and Inputs Considered by

Equity Theory

Table

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Three Possible

Outcomes of

Equity TheoryComparisons

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Judging

Equity with

Different

ComparisonOthers

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Psychological Empowerment

Psychological empowermentreflects an energyrooted in the belief that work tasks contribute tosome larger purpose.Meaningfulnesscaptures the value of a work goal or

purpose, relative to a persons own ideals and passions. Self-determinationreflects a sense of choice in the

initiation and continuation of work tasks.

Competencecaptures a persons belief in his or hercapability to perform work tasks successfully.

Impactreflects the sense that a persons actions make adifferencethat progress is being made toward fulfillingsome important purpose.


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Why Are Some

Employees

MoreMotivated

than Others?

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How Important is Motivation?

Strongest performance effect is self-efficacy /competence; people who feel a sense of internalself-confidence tend to outperform those who doubttheir capabilities.

Difficult goals are the second most powerfulmotivating force.

The motivational force created by high levels ofvalence, instrumentality, and expectancy is the next

most powerful motivational variable for taskperformance.

Perceptions of equity have a somewhat weakereffect on task performance.


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Effects of Motivation on Performance and

Commitment

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Application: Compensation Systems

Do the elements provide difficult and specific goals

for channeling work effort?

Lump sum bonuses and gainsharing have been credited

with improvements in employee productivity. Consider the correspondence between individual

performance levels and individual monetary

outcomes.

Merit pay represents the most common element oforganizational compensation plans.


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Compensation Plan Elements

Table

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Compensation Plan Elements, Contd

Table

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Takeaways

Motivation is defined as a set of energetic forces thatoriginates both within and outside an employee,initiates work-related effort, and determines itsdirection, intensity, and persistence.

According to expectancy theory, effort is directed

toward behaviors when effort is believed to result in

performance (expectancy), performance is believed to

result in outcomes (instrumentality), and thoseoutcomes are anticipated to be valuable (valence).


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Takeaways, Contd

According to goal setting theory, goals become strong drivers ofmotivation and performance when they are difficult and specific.

Specific and difficult goals affect performance by increasing self-set

goals and task strategies. Those effects occur more frequently when

employees are given feedback, tasks are not too complex, and goal

commitment is high.

According to equity theory, rewards are equitable when a persons ratio

of outcomes to inputs matches those of some relevant comparison

other. A sense of inequity triggers equity distress. Underreward inequity

typically results in lower levels of motivation or higher levels of

counterproductive behavior. Overreward inequity typically results in

cognitive distortion, in which inputs are reevaluated in a more positive

light.


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Takeaways, Contd

Psychological empowerment reflects an energy rootedin the belief that tasks are contributing to some larger

purpose. Psychological empowerment is fostered

when:

work goals appeal to employees passions (meaningfulness),

employees have a sense of choice regarding work tasks

(self-determination),

employees feel capable of performing successfully

(competence), and

employees feel they are making progress toward fulfilling

their purpose (impact).


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Takeaways, Contd

Motivation has a strong positive relationship with jobperformance and a moderate positive relationshipwith organizational commitment. Of all the energeticforces subsumed by motivation, self-

efficacy/competence has the strongest relationshipwith performance and commitment.

Organizations use compensation practices toincrease motivation. Those practices may includeindividual-focused elements (piece-rate, merit pay,

lump sum bonuses, recognition awards), unit-focused elements (gainsharing), or organization-focused elements (profit sharing).

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