Chap004.pdf

Chapter 04 - Work Analysis and Design

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CHAPTER 4

WORK ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to

1. Understand what work analysis is and what its major products are. 2. Explain the purposes and uses for work analysis data. 3. Compare and contrast methods for collecting data. 4. Describe commonly used and newer methods for conducting work analysis, including

O*NET. 5. Describe the process of competency modeling and compare this method to others

forms of work analysis 6. Explain how work analysis information is applied to job design efforts.


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CHAPTER 4 - SUMMARY I. Overview

A. Work analysis is the foundation for HR systems. B. Work analysis leads to products to create and sustain organizational capability. C. Effective work analysis increases the probability that HR deliverables will meet

the requirement of customers, both internal and external.

II. What is Work Analysis?

A. Work analysis is a systematic process of gathering information about work, jobs and the relationships among jobs.

B. The major steps in conducting a work or job analysis. 1. What are the required outputs and how do we measure them? 2. What are the essential tasks, activities, behaviors required to meet or exceed

the output requirements? What is the relative importance, frequency, and essentiality of these tasks for achieving measures at step output requirements? How do the tasks relate to one another?

3. What are the raw inputs that are required for the outputs and what specific equipment is necessary?

4. What are the necessary knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics or competencies required to perform the activities at step 2?

5. How should jobs/work be defined? Where does the work get done to maximize efficiency/ effectiveness? Do we use individual jobs, work teams, independent contractors, full-time/ part-time? Do we outsource?

C. KASOC’s

1. Knowledge - an organized body of information 2. Ability - a demonstrated competence to perform a behavior 3. Skill - a competence to perform a learned psychomotor act 4. Other characteristics - personality factors, attitudes, etc

D. What Are the Major Goals for Work Analysis?

1. Describe the observables/desired outcomes 2. Describe work behavior independent of worker personal characteristics 3. Produce data that is verifiable and reliable

E. Do We Really Need All the Specificity in Formal Job Analysis?

1. There is a strong trend to reduce the specificity in job descriptions 2. In Japan job descriptions are perceived to be harmful for team building; focus is

on training and job rotation 3. In Europe, highly detailed job descriptions are frequently required by regulation

union agreement.


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4. Job descriptions can be aggregated to the unit or functional level, defining job

specifications at the team level, and defining team member competencies. 5. Organizations can retrieve general job descriptions from the Internet (e.g.,

O*NET). 6. There are situations where great detail in the job description and job

specifications may be required and helpful, particularly in response to legal action.

F. What Is the Legal Significance of Work Analysis?

1. EEO legislation and relevant court rulings have created greater interest in and need for work/job analysis. i. Griggs v. Duke Power and Albemarle Paper Company v. Moody – must

demonstrate “job relatedness” of employer selection systems if adverse impact is found; one method is a thorough work analysis

ii. ADEA challenges focus on job analysis data related to BFOQs iii. Job analysis can be used to provide justification of cut-off scores iv. ADA may require identification of “essential functions” and redesign of jobs

for “reasonable accommodations” v. Job analysis, particularly PAQ, can be useful to comply with FLSA

G. What Are the Major Work Analysis Products and Purposes?

1. Job Descriptions outline the job's content and scope (i.e. duties, tasks, activities, behaviors, and/or responsibilities).

2. Job Specifications consists of KASOCs, experience, and special educational requirements, degrees, licenses needed to carry out job tasks.

i. often contested in court because they cause “adverse impact” against protected classes (e.g., 80% rule violations)

ii. Unnecessary specifications can inflate wages and contribute to the glass-ceiling effect

iii. The statistical relationship between job specifications and effectiveness on the job should be assessed.

3. Is used to redesign jobs and to determine how jobs relate to one another. 4. Determine compensation both for individual jobs and for team competencies 5. Used to develop performance appraisal systems 6. Additional products and purposes can be reviewed in Figure 4-3 (p. 108).

H. What Are the Major Methods of Work Analysis?

1. See Figure 4-4, p. 109 for overview of methods and their advantages & disadvantages

2. Common job analysis data collection methods. i. Observation. ii. Performing the job.


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iii. Interviews iv. Critical incidents v. Diaries vi. Background/personnel records vii. Questionnaires

3. The data collected should be correlated to relevant organizational data directly relevant to the job in question (e.g., personnel performance data)

I. What Are the Dimensions on Which Work Analysis Methods May Vary?

1. Types of Information. i. Task/job -oriented methods indicate the tasks or duties required ii. Person/Worker-oriented methods collect information on the KASOCs. iii. Trait-oriented approaches detail the job specifications necessary (i.e.

threshold traits analysis) 2. The Form of Job Information

i. Qualitative or narrative descriptions (e.g. CIT) ii. Quantitative or numerical descriptions (e.g. PAQ, MPDQ)

3. The Standardization of the Work Analysis Content i. HRM professionals have created uniform or consistent methods for

work/job analysis ii. The quantitative approaches are more standardized iii. Response formats can vary iv. Many questionnaires are now completed online

4. Sources of Job Information i. Cameras ii. Recording devices iii. Trained job analysts, incumbents, customers, supervisors, subordinates iv. Use of multiple sources increases the probability of capturing all facets of

a job III. What Are the Most Useful Work Analysis Methods?

A. Best source of information: Job Analysis Handbook for Business, Industry, and Government that describes many different job analysis approaches used today

B. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ).

1. 187 items in six categories i. Information input requirements ii. Mental processing iii. Work output needs iv. Relationships with other people v. Job context vi. Other relevant job characteristics


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2. PAQ results can identify selection tests for job being analyzed i. Only job analysis method which specifically identifies tests with estimated

validities (see Figure 4-6, page 115). 3. Extensive research using the PAQ makes it one of the most useful tools; useful

for Title VII cases to support argument of job relatedness i. Taylor v. James River Corporation- PAQ was used and a cognitive ability test

was suggested. The test was used by the company, use of the test resulted in adverse impact. PAQ results helped support the argument of job relatedness in the use of the.

4. Organizations should conduct their own studies of validity of employment test as soon as technically feasible, and not simply rely on PAQ recommendations

5. PAQ results need to be understood relative to organizational context. Incumbents have a tendency to exaggerate the requirements for jobs.

C. Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ).

1. Developed to analyze managerial jobs (see Figure 4-7, p. 117) 2. 274-Item questionnaire contains 15 sections 3. Asks significance of each item to position 4. Data can be used in hiring, training and staff development 5. Does not tell whether a particular job specification is necessary for a given

position.

D. Competency Modeling 1. Focused more on how objectives are accomplished than on what is

accomplished 2. Concentrated on managerial positions and should be closely linked to business

goals and strategies 3. Attempts to identify and define the individual competencies that are common

or core for an occupational group or the organization as a whole versus distinctions between jobs.

4. Most commonly used to derive performance management and training programs.

5. Competency – an “underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance on the job” or as a “cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes that affects a major part of one’s job (a role or responsibility), that correlates with performance on the job, that can be measured against well-accepted standards.” (p. 118)

6. An estimated 75% of companies have some form of competency-based application. i. One popular, two-level competency model distinguishes “can-do

competencies” (skills and knowledge derived from education and experience) and “will-do competencies” (personality and attitudinal characteristics that reflect an individual’s willingness to perform).


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7. Define individual competencies that are core for the company. i. Usually does not help determine what specific job specifications to

require for a particular job or assignment, such as education requirements.

8. Used for training and development programs 9. Three difference between traditional job analysis and competency modeling are

i. Competency modeling focuses on KASOCs versus tasks or behaviors ii. Competency modeling tends to be more qualitative iii. Competency modeling tends to be future oriented and driven by the

strategic plans of the organization 10. Because the process is more qualitative, the inferential leap from competency

to performing a job effectively can cause legal problems 11. Core competency is a critical, underlying attribute necessary for successful

performance i. Usually does not help determine what specific job specifications to

require for a particular job or assignment, such as education requirements.

12. Due to availability of related software, competency modeling is being used to evaluate the performance of managers. The problem with this is that it is difficult to distinguish between competencies and psychological traits such as spontaneity

i. Boeing uses competency modeling to develop structured interviews and training and development, and during RIF

ii. Microsoft has used the models for career discussion iii. U.S. Department of State uses the models to guide promotion panels

13. Used for training and development programs.

E. The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) (http://www.onetcenter.org/overview.html)

1. A Department of Labor automated database for collecting, describing, and presenting reliable and valid occupational information

2. Primary government source of information about occupations 3. Uses ‘generalized work activities”

i. Descriptors include tasks, behaviors, abilities, skills, knowledge, styles, and work content

4. Content Model’s six domains (Figure 4-10 pg. 123) i. Experience Requirements

ii. Worker Requirements iii. Worker Characteristics iv. Occupational Characteristics v. Occupational Specific Requirements/machines, tools, equipment

vi. Occupational Requirements/General work activities

http://www.onetcenter.org/overview.html


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5. The most comprehensive data base for describing occupations and workers i. Useful for developing hiring procedures ii. Basic job descriptions can be retrieved iii. Occupational data (i.e. salary) iv. Great place to start for detailed job descriptions and job specifications

F. Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

1. Qualitative approach to job analysis used to obtain specific, behavioral focused descriptions of work or other activities. Originally focused on training needs assessment and performance appraisal

2. Four characteristics or CIT i. Be specific ii. Focus on observable behaviors iii. Describe the context in which the behavior occurred iv. Indicate the consequences of the behavior

3. Requirements of a well-written critical incident report i. It must be sufficiently detailed ii. There should be no mention of traits iii. There should be no judgmental inferences

4. Uses of the CIT i. Applicable to a variety of jobs (e.g., airline pilots, dentists, etc.) ii. To develop performance appraisal systems iii. To develop customer satisfaction instruments

G. Personality-Based Job Analysis 1. Popular in making hiring and promotional decisions

2. Agreement that personality characteristics can be predictors of job performance, and that the Five-Factor Model is most useful

3. The Five Factors include i. emotional stability ii. extroversion/introversion iii. openness to experience iv. agreeableness v. conscientiousness 4. The results do not serve as a “substitute for a user’s professional judgment” as

to the suitability of an individual for a job

H. Fleishman Job-Analysis Survey (F-JAS) 1. System for describing jobs and tasks in terms of abilities, skills, knowledge and

social-interpersonal attributes 2. One of the most thoroughly researched formal JA methods 3. Links characteristics of job and tasks to requirements people need to perform

those jobs and tasks


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4. An individual’s attributes profile can be compared to the requirements of a

job 5. Pro’s of this method

i. web-based system ii. cost effective iii. link results to tests iv. easy to use v. instant scoring and interpretation

I. Job Compatibility Questionnaire (JCQ)

1. Gathers broad information on factors of work related to performance, absenteeism, turnover, and job satisfaction

2. JCQ theory is that the greater the compatibility in preferences for particular job characteristics, they will be more effective and have longer job tenure

3. 200 items that incumbents complete 4. Incumbent responses are used to develop the profile of the job 5. Incumbents indicate the extent to which a JCQ item is descriptive of the job

using a 5 point scale 6. Useful for

i. Predicting retention/turnover for low wage jobs ii. redesign jobs iii. choosing selection tools iv. prediction of retention of low wage job v. correlation with turnover, and job performance

a) Tenneco found responses indicated strong preference for a pay for performance system, and a more stable work schedule. These characteristics were changed and turnover was reduced by 14%

J. Work Analysis for Job Design

1. Reflects an orientation towards creating or changing the manner in which work gets done

2. Requires a thorough understanding of how jobs relate to one another/organizational structure

3. Enriching jobs through more meaningful work, greater responsibility, and greater work autonomy to increase motivation and job satisfaction

4. The Job Characteristics Model states motivation¸ satisfaction, lower absenteeism and turnover is possible if workers: i. Believe their work is meaningful. ii. Have responsibility for their outcomes. iii. Receive feedback on their results.

5. Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) used to measure work characteristics 6. Much criticism of the JDS and the Job Characteristics Model 7. Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) is superior method


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i. Used to study the relationship between work design variables and important work outcomes such as job satisfaction

ii. Figure 4-14 (p 131) lists the 18 work characteristics from the WDQ

iii. Most effective predictor of job satisfaction: autonomy and social support

H. What is Strategic Job Analysis? 1. Intended to forecast what a job may be like in a new environment with new

strategic goals, new technologies, increased customer contact, or expanded duties

2. Steps to conducting a strategic job analysis i. Job analysis or subject matter experts (SMEs) and customers describe job

based on strategic plan and standardize description. ii. Incumbents or SMEs discuss how changes such as new technology affect the

job iii. Detailed description and KASOCs are generated including expected changes iv. New analysis compared to current to note differences. v. Comparison provides information relevant to developing performance

standards, training content, KASOCs, etc. 3. Requires widespread involvement to increase probability of predicting changes.

Should include a variety of functional areas, customers, and technologists

IV. Autonomous Work Groups (AWG) or Self-Managing Teams A. Employees with a high degree of decision making responsibility and control B. Leadership, external to the team, act as facilitators rather than supervisors C. Teams may be involved in setting team goals, resolving internal conflict, and making

task assignment D. Application of Job Characteristics Model E. To be effective, training is critical F. The effectiveness of AWGs or Self-Managing Work Teams is mixed. Team members

and managers need to be patient. It can take up to 2 years to see positive effects G. Use of AWG’s can lead to higher job satisfaction

V. Rating Source Matters: Potential Biases in Work Analysis Data A. The rating source, the purpose for the data, and type of ratings will impact results and

accuracy of data B. Incumbents assign more importance to their jobs than supervisors and trained

analysts C. External job analysis experts are the best source of unbiased data D. Incumbents maybe the best source of information E. Because work analysis methods involve human judgment, the results are subject to

bias F. Best to have large number of experts from a variety of sources, (customers, clients,

incumbents, managers) rating KASOCs and job specifications


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VI. How Do You Choose the Best Job Analysis Method?

Best Method(s)

Job description PAQ O*NET

Job Design PAQ WDQ

Job Classification PAQ, O*NET

Job Evaluation PAQ, O*NET

Selection Tests PAQ, JCQ

Performance Appraisal CIT

Job Related Interviews CIT

Training Program CIT, O*NET

Legal Compliance No Method ideal

Job Specification Use Own Data to validate If available

A. Multiple methods of data should be used whenever feasible B. O*NET has a wealth of information to accomplish most of major purposes C. Organizations should use their own data whenever possible to determine whether

particular job specifications are correlated with critical criteria

VII. Summary

A. Work analysis is one of the most important competencies and tools of HR professionals

B. Work analysis identifies differences among jobs to identify selection methods that are linked to job success

C. Work analysis helps to ensure that HR systems will be professionally sound, and legally defensible

D. Comprehensive and multiple source/ method data collection produce the most effective deliverables

E. Work analysis facilitates group performance through the clear definition of responsibilities and tasks, and an understanding of working relationships


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CHAPTER 4 - IMPORTANT TERMS

Ability refers to a demonstrated competence to perform an observable behavior or a behavior that results in an observable product. Autonomous Work Groups are self managing work teams that are given a high degree of decision-making responsibility and behavioral control for completing their work. Competency is an “underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance on the job” Competency Modeling provides “underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance on the job” or as a “cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes that affects a major part of one’s job (a role or responsibility), that correlates with performance on the job, that can be measured against well-accepted standards.” Competency Modeling is more focused on how objectives are accomplished rather than what is accomplished. Core Competency- is judged to be a critical and underlying attribute related to successful performance Critical Incident Technique (CIT)- is a qualitative approach for obtaining specific, behaviorally focused descriptions of work or other activities. DOT- is the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Essential Functions- Critical parts of jobs identified pursuant to ADA. Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) a system for describing jobs and tasks in terms of the ability, skills, knowledge and social-interpersonal attributes required for the job. Job Characteristics Model- Developed by J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham as a popular job enrichment model and process. The model posits that the psychological dimension of the job (meaningful work, responsibility for outcomes, feedback on results) can be measured through skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback from job. Job Compatibility Questionnaire (JCQ) - gathers information on all characteristics of job to derive test for determining job compatibility. Scores on the JCQ are correlated with job tenure for low wage jobs.


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Job descriptions- Describes the job in terms of its content and scope. Includes information on job duties and responsibilities, an identification of critical internal and external customers, equipment to be used on the job, working conditions, relationships with coworkers, and the extent of supervision required Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - is an instrument designed to measure the five key elements of the Job Characteristic Model. Job Enrichment- efforts provide more meaningful work, greater responsibility, and greater worker autonomy Job design- deals with the allocation and arrangement of organizational work activities and tasks Job specifications- Consists of the KASOCs needed to carry out the job tasks and duties. May include specific educational requirements or years of experience KASOCs- are critical knowledge, abilities, skills, and other characteristics necessary to perform the work or job tasks. Knowledge- refers to an organized body of information, usually of a factual or procedural nature applied directly to the performance of a function. Management Position Description Questionnaire (MDPQ) - is a standardized job analysis instrument for management jobs. Occupational Information Network (O*NET) - provides automated database for collecting describing and presenting reliable and valid occupational information (http://online.onetcenter.org/) Organizational Structure- is the network of relationships or the connections among the various jobs of an organization. Other personal characteristics- include various personality characteristics, attitudes, or physical or mental competencies needed to perform the job. Performance appraisal- describes how well individuals do their jobs. Person or worker oriented methods- collects information based on KASOCs or behaviors to perform the tasks satisfactorily. Personality-based Job Analysis- based on the idea that personality is an important predictor of job performance. It uses the Five-factor Model of personality.

http://www.onetcenter.org/


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Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - standardized questionnaire that assess activities using 187 items in six categories. PAQ analysis identifies specific selection tests. Quantitative methods- provide descriptions in numeric form (PAQ, MPDQ). Qualitative methods- are narrative, non-numerical (CIT). Skill- is a competence to perform a learned, psychomotor act, and may include a manual, verbal, or mental manipulation of data, people or things. Strategic Job Analysis- forecasts what a job may be like in a new environment with new strategic goals, new technologies, increased customer contact or expanded duties. Task or Job Oriented Methods- indicate the tasks or duties required to perform a job. Trait-oriented methods- focus on latent traits (mental physical of personality) that a person has in order to perform to get specific results. Work analysis- is the systematic process of gathering information about work, jobs, and the relationship between jobs. Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) - expands the knowledge of work design; studies the relationship between work design variables and important work outcomes.


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LEGAL CASES Griggs v. Duke Power Company and Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody - Emphasized importance of demonstrating job relatedness of employee selection systems. Job analysis may be necessary to establish job relatedness. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) - Specifies that employers must make "reasonable accommodations" that would allow qualified people with disabilities to perform a given job. Job analysis may be necessary to establish essential functions of the job. Taylor v. James River Corporation- The PAQ can used to establish “job relatedness”

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