Changes in Rainfall Chloe Donaldson. Water Cycle.

Changes in RainfallChanges in Rainfall

Chloe DonaldsonChloe Donaldson

Water CycleWater Cycle

QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor

are needed to see this picture.



SnowSnow When water evaporates, it removes heat. When that moisture

condenses inside clouds to form snowflakes, it releases this stored heat, which warms the air. As more snow crystallizes, more heat is released, which in turn makes wind. When the snow falls, it takes water out of the atmosphere, leaving it drier. Snow on the ground also reflects sunlight back into space, which helps cool the planet. http://www.physorg.com/news92329920.html

When water evaporates, it removes heat. When that moisture condenses inside clouds to form snowflakes, it releases this stored heat, which warms the air. As more snow crystallizes, more heat is released, which in turn makes wind. When the snow falls, it takes water out of the atmosphere, leaving it drier. Snow on the ground also reflects sunlight back into space, which helps cool the planet. http://www.physorg.com/news92329920.html





The Effect of Global Warming on RainfallThe Effect of Global Warming on Rainfall

Every degree of warming attributes to a one percent increase in rainfall (not evenly distributed)

Rising sea surface temperatures (SST)

Every degree of warming attributes to a one percent increase in rainfall (not evenly distributed)

Rising sea surface temperatures (SST)

More water: GREAT!More water: GREAT!

An excess amount of rain is falling at high latitudes in winter which has caused severe problems for many habitats.

An excess amount of rain is falling at high latitudes in winter which has caused severe problems for many habitats.

CanadaCanada

On August 1st 2008 tourists were evacuated from the Baffin Islands in Canada due to "Thawing permafrost, eroding lakeshores, a melting glacier and fears of flash floods”

In the winter of 2002-2003 58 people were killed by avalanches in the worst avalanche season in Canadian history

http://www.avalanche.org/accidnt1.htmhttp://www.desmogblog.com/arctic-tourists-evacuated-amid-melting-and-

unprecedented-warming

On August 1st 2008 tourists were evacuated from the Baffin Islands in Canada due to "Thawing permafrost, eroding lakeshores, a melting glacier and fears of flash floods”

In the winter of 2002-2003 58 people were killed by avalanches in the worst avalanche season in Canadian history

http://www.avalanche.org/accidnt1.htmhttp://www.desmogblog.com/arctic-tourists-evacuated-amid-melting-and-

unprecedented-warming





A: Ward Hunt Ice Shelf

B: Disraeli ford

C: Arctic Ocean

Ward Hunt Ice ShelfWard Hunt Ice Shelf On July 29th 2008 four square kilometers of the Ward

Hunt Ice Shelf broke off This is the largest break since 2005 More than 8,000 square kilometers of the Arctic Ice

Shelf have been broken off leaving only 1,000 square kilometers

“Sea ice cover has been shrinking about three percent per decade” says Mark Serreze (scientist with the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Co.)

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/todd-carmichael/massive-piece-of-ward-hun_b_115677.html

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/img/img_vedette-rsat_1215_2d2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://polarwarming.ca/blog/%3Fp%3D276&usg=__P4aZnUfZcZWXRapzAbd_R7lZwck=&h=809&w=600&sz=423&hl=en&start=3&sig2=j2Hpwb4Seb2LnKnnZUHQ1g&um=1&tbnid=ktrmbg5-_uOFKM:&tbnh=143&tbnw=106&ei=ZJM1SZf8HoSoefj8sPcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dward%2Bhunt%2Bice%2Bshelf%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DN

On July 29th 2008 four square kilometers of the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf broke off

This is the largest break since 2005 More than 8,000 square kilometers of the Arctic Ice

Shelf have been broken off leaving only 1,000 square kilometers

“Sea ice cover has been shrinking about three percent per decade” says Mark Serreze (scientist with the National Snow and Ice Data Center in Boulder, Co.)


http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/img/img_vedette-rsat_1215_2d2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://polarwarming.ca/blog/%3Fp%3D276&usg=__P4aZnUfZcZWXRapzAbd_R7lZwck=&h=809&w=600&sz=423&hl=en&start=3&sig2=j2Hpwb4Seb2LnKnnZUHQ1g&um=1&tbnid=ktrmbg5-_uOFKM:&tbnh=143&tbnw=106&ei=ZJM1SZf8HoSoefj8sPcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dward%2Bhunt%2Bice%2Bshelf%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DN

Spring of 2004Spring of 2004 The spring of 2004 brought an end

to England’s drought but it also brought unprecedented downpours and storms that raged through April, May, and June

Thunder storms and urban flooding were reported across England

Seasonal precipitation in the Upper North Grain catchment with dashed lines showing the winter and summer mean precipitation at the Featherbed Top meteorological site (1961 ﾐ 2005).

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6C-4T4XRHG-3&_user=961305&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000049425&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=961305&md5=56fa1861d10edd3ac19b160cb480bd67

http://www.nerc-wallingford.ac.uk/ih/nrfa/yb/yb2004/rainfall.html

The spring of 2004 brought an end to England’s drought but it also brought unprecedented downpours and storms that raged through April, May, and June

Thunder storms and urban flooding were reported across England

Seasonal precipitation in the Upper North Grain catchment with dashed lines showing the winter and summer mean precipitation at the Featherbed Top meteorological site (1961 ﾐ 2005).

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6C-4T4XRHG-3&_user=961305&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000049425&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=961305&md5=56fa1861d10edd3ac19b160cb480bd67

http://www.nerc-wallingford.ac.uk/ih/nrfa/yb/yb2004/rainfall.html





Implications of the Destruction of the Arctic

Implications of the Destruction of the Arctic

According to Nasa:“Loss of sea ice can have major

implications for global climate. Because of its light appearance, sea ice reflects most of the Sun's energy back into space, whereas darker seawater absorbs most of the incoming radiation and could potentially warm Earth's climate. As sea ice continues to melt, more radiation will be absorbed by the ocean.”


According to Nasa:“Loss of sea ice can have major

implications for global climate. Because of its light appearance, sea ice reflects most of the Sun's energy back into space, whereas darker seawater absorbs most of the incoming radiation and could potentially warm Earth's climate. As sea ice continues to melt, more radiation will be absorbed by the ocean.”


Where’s the Water?Where’s the Water?

Global warming is increasing the amount of rainfall per year but because it is not evenly distributed many places that depend on seasonal rainfall are being faced with severe droughts

Global warming is increasing the amount of rainfall per year but because it is not evenly distributed many places that depend on seasonal rainfall are being faced with severe droughts

The Sahel RegionThe Sahel Region





http://bp1.blogger.com/_cgI0mqeCmD4/RvVA9jwQM5I/AAAAAAAAAFE/Xqok0Rf7afQ/s1600-h/Africa_Sahel.jpg

Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal

An Unending DroughtAn Unending Drought

In the 1970’s over 200,000 people living in the Sahel Region of Africa died due to the lack of rain. The monsoon rains have yet to return to this desperate section of the world.

Farmers dependent on the seasonal spring and summer rains can not work their land which is slowly turning to desert

Nomadic camel herders who travel through the drier areas feeding their herd are now forced to encroach on the small sections of fertile land the farmers have left

In the 1970’s over 200,000 people living in the Sahel Region of Africa died due to the lack of rain. The monsoon rains have yet to return to this desperate section of the world.

Farmers dependent on the seasonal spring and summer rains can not work their land which is slowly turning to desert

Nomadic camel herders who travel through the drier areas feeding their herd are now forced to encroach on the small sections of fertile land the farmers have left

SahelSahel

Droughts in the Sahel reduced productivity, leading to low vegetation cover that increased albedo, reduced water recycling and monsoon circulation, thus decreasing precipitation. Reduced vegetation cover also led to soil erosion and further reduction of productivity. This vicious cycle further suppressed vegetation cover

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/images/box7-1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/figtableboxes/box-7-1.htm&usg=__S6cNyoATUxpc2qoTFME_A_AsF6A=&h=352&w=620&sz=41&hl=en&start=3&sig2=PDrf1xEsoX0r83gMDyCyCA&um=1&tbnid=aVNb7rLreHj5LM:&tbnh=77&tbnw=136&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG

Droughts in the Sahel reduced productivity, leading to low vegetation cover that increased albedo, reduced water recycling and monsoon circulation, thus decreasing precipitation. Reduced vegetation cover also led to soil erosion and further reduction of productivity. This vicious cycle further suppressed vegetation cover

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/images/box7-1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/figtableboxes/box-7-1.htm&usg=__S6cNyoATUxpc2qoTFME_A_AsF6A=&h=352&w=620&sz=41&hl=en&start=3&sig2=PDrf1xEsoX0r83gMDyCyCA&um=1&tbnid=aVNb7rLreHj5LM:&tbnh=77&tbnw=136&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG

Why?Why?

The time series in the figure above represents variations above or below the long-term mean of rainfall in the Sahel region of Africa. The observed time series is the average of station observations in the region, while the modeled time series is an area average of the model's rendition of the variability. The similarity between the two is a measure of the success of the model in reproducing the observed variability, based on the influence of sea surface temperatures only on the global atmospheric circulation, and on Sahel

rainfall. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/images/sciencefig1.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/

story10-09-03.html&usg=__EO6jnQJeFxQhQWAtw5e1aMmb_RQ=&h=629&w=944&sz=659&hl=en&start=5&sig2=TntUJBSHJ9Du5UZOL7JUtA&um=1&tbnid=_aRBxEoMBGfzCM:&tbnh=99&tbnw=148&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG

The time series in the figure above represents variations above or below the long-term mean of rainfall in the Sahel region of Africa. The observed time series is the average of station observations in the region, while the modeled time series is an area average of the model's rendition of the variability. The similarity between the two is a measure of the success of the model in reproducing the observed variability, based on the influence of sea surface temperatures only on the global atmospheric circulation, and on Sahel

rainfall. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/images/sciencefig1.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.earth.columbia.edu/news/2003/

story10-09-03.html&usg=__EO6jnQJeFxQhQWAtw5e1aMmb_RQ=&h=629&w=944&sz=659&hl=en&start=5&sig2=TntUJBSHJ9Du5UZOL7JUtA&um=1&tbnid=_aRBxEoMBGfzCM:&tbnh=99&tbnw=148&ei=Boc1SbK8Mo6ceezN4fcH&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dthe%2Bsahel%2Bregion%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dsafari%26rls%3Den%26sa%3DG





Sea Surface TemperaturesSea Surface Temperatures





http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5647/1027/FIG2

Explanation of ChartExplanation of Chart The two leading patterns of observed precipitation explain 25% and

15% of the total variance, their modeled counterparts 32% and 21% of the ensemble-mean variance, respectively. (A and D) Leading spatial patterns (EOFs) in the model. Red, positive precipitation anomalies; blue, negative anomalies. (B and E) Leading PCs; (B) is interannual in nature, whereas (E) captures the well-known trend in Sahel rainfall. The correlation between observed (red, solid line) and modeled (blue, dashed line) Gulf of Guinea PCs is 0.62; that between Sahel PCs is 0.73. (C and F) Regression maps of the leading model PCs with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contour interval is every 0.4 K, starting at 0.2 K, and shading represents statistical significance of the anomalies at the 99.9% level or higher. Solid lines and red color, positive anomalies; dashed lines and blue color, negative anomalies.

The two leading patterns of observed precipitation explain 25% and 15% of the total variance, their modeled counterparts 32% and 21% of the ensemble-mean variance, respectively. (A and D) Leading spatial patterns (EOFs) in the model. Red, positive precipitation anomalies; blue, negative anomalies. (B and E) Leading PCs; (B) is interannual in nature, whereas (E) captures the well-known trend in Sahel rainfall. The correlation between observed (red, solid line) and modeled (blue, dashed line) Gulf of Guinea PCs is 0.62; that between Sahel PCs is 0.73. (C and F) Regression maps of the leading model PCs with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contour interval is every 0.4 K, starting at 0.2 K, and shading represents statistical significance of the anomalies at the 99.9% level or higher. Solid lines and red color, positive anomalies; dashed lines and blue color, negative anomalies.

ExplanationExplanation Decomposition of the Sahel PC of precipitation into low (A to C) and

high frequency (D to F) components. (A) Twenty-one year running mean of the Sahel PC, in observations (red), and in the model (blue). (D) Solid lines, the observed PC; dashed lines, the modeled PC. Correlation is 0.52, meaning that the success of the simulations comes from their ability to capture more than just the interdecadal variability. The vertical lines represent ENSO events: warm in red, cold in blue. (B and E) Regression maps of the (B) low- and (E) high-frequency components of the Jahel PC with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contouring and shading are as in Fig. 2. [(C) and (F)] Regression maps with precipitation. Contour interval is every 0.4 mm/day, starting at 0.2 mm/day.

Decomposition of the Sahel PC of precipitation into low (A to C) and high frequency (D to F) components. (A) Twenty-one year running mean of the Sahel PC, in observations (red), and in the model (blue). (D) Solid lines, the observed PC; dashed lines, the modeled PC. Correlation is 0.52, meaning that the success of the simulations comes from their ability to capture more than just the interdecadal variability. The vertical lines represent ENSO events: warm in red, cold in blue. (B and E) Regression maps of the (B) low- and (E) high-frequency components of the Jahel PC with ensemble-mean surface temperature. Contouring and shading are as in Fig. 2. [(C) and (F)] Regression maps with precipitation. Contour interval is every 0.4 mm/day, starting at 0.2 mm/day.

Breaking it DownBreaking it DownThe positive rainfall anaomoly of 1 standard

deviation is associated with negative Sea Surface Temp. in the Pacific and Indian oceans of up to .2 degrees celcius and negative surface temp. in Sahel of up to .6 degrees Celcius

On land above average rainfall equals more soil moisture

Moisture is evaporated=enhanced precipitation over land=increased soil moisture=evaporation and decreased land surface temperature

In Sahel less water = higher temperatures = destruction of vegetation =

The positive rainfall anaomoly of 1 standard deviation is associated with negative Sea Surface Temp. in the Pacific and Indian oceans of up to .2 degrees celcius and negative surface temp. in Sahel of up to .6 degrees Celcius

On land above average rainfall equals more soil moisture

Moisture is evaporated=enhanced precipitation over land=increased soil moisture=evaporation and decreased land surface temperature

In Sahel less water = higher temperatures = destruction of vegetation =

Breaking it Down Continued

Breaking it Down Continued

The semi-arid Sahel is highly sensitive to SST changes in all tropical basins including the Pacific and more local Atlantic and Indian. An increased SST in the

Indian Ocean, between East Africa and Indonesia, is identified as a leading factor for the decrease in rainfall trend observed in the Sahel from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Combined with the warmer-than-average eastern equatorial Atlantic Ocean it formed a low-latitude ring of warm SSTs around Africa that disrupted the fragile balance that defines the monsoon, between the competing

effects of high summertime land surface temperatures and the associated development of a land-ocean temperature contrast versus the availability of moisture. Rainfall anomalies of opposite sign across the Sahel and in the equatorial Indian Ocean support the hypothesis that the oceanic warming around Africa may indeed have weakened the land-ocean temperature contrast and consequently the monsoon, causing deep convection to migrate over the ocean and causing widespread drought over land, from the Atlantic coast of West Africa to the highlands of Ethiopia.

The semi-arid Sahel is highly sensitive to SST changes in all tropical basins including the Pacific and more local Atlantic and Indian. An increased SST in the

Indian Ocean, between East Africa and Indonesia, is identified as a leading factor for the decrease in rainfall trend observed in the Sahel from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Combined with the warmer-than-average eastern equatorial Atlantic Ocean it formed a low-latitude ring of warm SSTs around Africa that disrupted the fragile balance that defines the monsoon, between the competing

effects of high summertime land surface temperatures and the associated development of a land-ocean temperature contrast versus the availability of moisture. Rainfall anomalies of opposite sign across the Sahel and in the equatorial Indian Ocean support the hypothesis that the oceanic warming around Africa may indeed have weakened the land-ocean temperature contrast and consequently the monsoon, causing deep convection to migrate over the ocean and causing widespread drought over land, from the Atlantic coast of West Africa to the highlands of Ethiopia.

Simply put:Simply put:





The Sahel drought was likely initiated by a change in worldwide ocean temperatures, which reduced the strength of the African monsoon, and was exacerbated by land-atmosphere feedbacks through natural vegetation and land cover change.

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5647/999

The Sahel drought was likely initiated by a change in worldwide ocean temperatures, which reduced the strength of the African monsoon, and was exacerbated by land-atmosphere feedbacks through natural vegetation and land cover change.

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/302/5647/999

Global DimmingGlobal Dimming Although many problems arise from the warming of the

earths oceans scientists have noted that some of the oceans around Europe have begun to cool

Scientists attribute some of the cooling to Global dimming

Coal-fired power plants, cars, and factories all put massive amounts of dust particles into the air

These particles scatter and absorb light which lowers temperatures

Dust also carries nutrients to the ocean and far off lands helping the growth of CO2 absorbing plants and plankton

About half of the dust in the air is produced in Africa and as a result of the drying of its land the amount of dust in the atmosphere has icreased by a third

Although many problems arise from the warming of the earths oceans scientists have noted that some of the oceans around Europe have begun to cool

Scientists attribute some of the cooling to Global dimming

Coal-fired power plants, cars, and factories all put massive amounts of dust particles into the air

These particles scatter and absorb light which lowers temperatures

Dust also carries nutrients to the ocean and far off lands helping the growth of CO2 absorbing plants and plankton

About half of the dust in the air is produced in Africa and as a result of the drying of its land the amount of dust in the atmosphere has icreased by a third

AustraliaAustraliaSince 1975 Australia has suffered a 15% decrease

in rainfallClimatologist David Karoly attributes this to “the

destruction of the ozone layer, which has cooled the stratosphere over the Antarctic, thus hastening the circulation of cold air around the Pole and drawing the southern rainfall zone even farther southward.”

Winter rainfall which the farmers depend on to nourish their crops and replenish their water supply has decreased more than 15%

Summer rainfall which is erratic and not suitable for supplying water to crops has increased

Since 1975 Australia has suffered a 15% decrease in rainfall

Climatologist David Karoly attributes this to “the destruction of the ozone layer, which has cooled the stratosphere over the Antarctic, thus hastening the circulation of cold air around the Pole and drawing the southern rainfall zone even farther southward.”

Winter rainfall which the farmers depend on to nourish their crops and replenish their water supply has decreased more than 15%

Summer rainfall which is erratic and not suitable for supplying water to crops has increased

Rainfall in AustraliaRainfall in Australia





Seems OddSeems Odd It seems odd that overall rainfall has increased in

Australia However the areas that have decreased rainfall statistics

are more harmfully affected Large increases (greater than 20 mm per ten years)

since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have been observed in north-west Australia. Decreases since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have occurred in all the eastern states, South Australia and much of the Northern Territory.The rainfall graph shows an increase in annual rainfall averaged across the continent over the reporting period 1900 to 2004. The increase from the mid 1970s is more pronounced. This is interesting given that the area affected by decreased rainfall seems to be greater than the area affected by increased rainfall.

It seems odd that overall rainfall has increased in Australia

However the areas that have decreased rainfall statistics are more harmfully affected

Large increases (greater than 20 mm per ten years) since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have been observed in north-west Australia. Decreases since 1950, intensifying since 1970, have occurred in all the eastern states, South Australia and much of the Northern Territory.The rainfall graph shows an increase in annual rainfall averaged across the continent over the reporting period 1900 to 2004. The increase from the mid 1970s is more pronounced. This is interesting given that the area affected by decreased rainfall seems to be greater than the area affected by increased rainfall.

America and the OceansAmerica and the Oceans

Most of western America has experienced a series of severe droughts

During the years between 1998 and 2002 the Pacific Ocean was split. The water in the east were cooler than normal while the water in the west were warmer than average

This shifted the jet stream northward and pushed the storms about 5 degrees latitudinally northward

The warming of the ocean is attributed to the increased CO2 in the atmosphere

Most of western America has experienced a series of severe droughts

During the years between 1998 and 2002 the Pacific Ocean was split. The water in the east were cooler than normal while the water in the west were warmer than average

This shifted the jet stream northward and pushed the storms about 5 degrees latitudinally northward

The warming of the ocean is attributed to the increased CO2 in the atmosphere

America’s Water SupplyAmerica’s Water Supply

Farmers in the US rely on the snowpack to provide water to their crops

Snow fall has declined severely over the last 50 years and if trends continue the snowpack could be reduced by up to 60%

Higher temperatures cause the snowpack to melt earlier so water is released earlier in the spring and winter than needed so crops aren’t getting enough water in the summer

More water in the spring and winter is a cause for flooding

Farmers in the US rely on the snowpack to provide water to their crops

Snow fall has declined severely over the last 50 years and if trends continue the snowpack could be reduced by up to 60%

Higher temperatures cause the snowpack to melt earlier so water is released earlier in the spring and winter than needed so crops aren’t getting enough water in the summer

More water in the spring and winter is a cause for flooding

SummarySummary

It would be accurate to say that rain has shifted, it has not only decreased in some places but increased (detrimentally in others)

Excess water has caused the degredation of arctic environments as well as harmful flooding

A lack of water is responsible for the destruction of healthy environments and an increase in global dust

It would be accurate to say that rain has shifted, it has not only decreased in some places but increased (detrimentally in others)

Excess water has caused the degredation of arctic environments as well as harmful flooding

A lack of water is responsible for the destruction of healthy environments and an increase in global dust

How Come?How Come?

CO2 emissions are contributing to rising sea surface temperatures which throw the storm patters off causing rainfall to increase in some areas and decrease in others

The force of Monsoon season is weakened by the higher sea surface temperatures

A decrease in water leads to a dangerous cycle of increase land surface temperature and decreased evaporation which is directly connected to decreased rainfall

CO2 emissions are contributing to rising sea surface temperatures which throw the storm patters off causing rainfall to increase in some areas and decrease in others

The force of Monsoon season is weakened by the higher sea surface temperatures

A decrease in water leads to a dangerous cycle of increase land surface temperature and decreased evaporation which is directly connected to decreased rainfall

SourcesSources

Changes in Rainfall Chloe Donaldson. Water Cycle.

Documents

Transcript of Changes in Rainfall Chloe Donaldson. Water Cycle.