Unit Seven

Changes in European Society18 CenturyChapters 19 and 20Unit FIVECatalysts of ChangeChanges in AgriculturePopulation ExplosionCottage IndustryNew Atlantic Economy

Impact of ChangeMarriage and the FamilyChildren and EducationFood and MedicineReligion and Popular CultureAgriculturePrior to 18th Century18th Century80% population commoners who scratched out a livingLand was stingy, famine was common every 10 yearsFamine foods eaten (bark, grass)Decrease in immunity/increase in illnessLosses were compounded by taxes, tithes, rents and duesMedieval three field and open field system and common lands utilizedConditions worse in Eastern Europe especially RussiaAgricultural Revolution Crop rotationEnclosures Selective breedingLow Countries and England led the wayWhy the Low Countries?1. Money and Talent : Golden Age - recallMaritime trade (esp. Indian Ocean)Shipbuilding and navigationBanking and commerceDutch MastersWell-educated, wealthy urban middle Class Created advanced drainage techniquesExperimented with crop rotation, enclosures, varied crops, selective breeding (cows best in Europe) extensive use of manure2. Incentive: Population dense, created a need for innovation

Why England?Copied the Netherlands brought over ideas and engineers from the mainland (drainage, crop rotation, etc)Talent: Charles Townsend, Jethro Tull (no, not that Jethro Tull)Willing elite, creating proletarianizationSelective breeding already used in horse breeding (for the fox hunt) was now used in breeding of livestockBy 1870 Agricultural production had increased 300% (however, workforce only grew by 14%). Impact?PopulationPrior to the 18th Century18th CenturyPopulation ravaged by the grim reapers of demographic crisis: famine, disease and warRecall: Black Death, 100 Years War, 30 Years WarW. European peasants benefit, E. European did notBy 1500 population had reboundFrom 1600-1700 Population stagnatedPopulation outstripped agricultural outputPrice revolutionGrowth in population due to fewer deaths:Following a short plague outbreak in 1721, plagues will no longer affect EuropeBrown rat died outQuarantine more utilizedSmallpox vaccine in EnglandWars resulted in fewer deathsDeath contributes to diseaseFamine reducedNew crops from Americas potatoRoads and canals allowed for the transport of foodswater cleaner, drainage prevented diseaseHealthier people more immune to disease

NoteLooking at the previous slide, which of the items on the right (18th century) can be attributed to the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment?Also famine, disease and war did occur, however their impact was reducedGrowth of the Cottage IndustryThe growth in agricultural output and population did not mean a growth in jobs (remember 300% v. 14% - previous slide)In the cities, guilds continued to tightly control jobs in manufacturingEuropeans (particularly in Western Europe) had to resort to other means of survival. Eastern Europe was very feudal

Protoindustrialization (aka cottage industry, domestic industry, putting- out system)Participants included merchant capitalists and rural, stay-at-home workers In most cases, the merchant provided the materials to the worker, who then created a product (thread, fabric, housewares, etc) in their home or workshop (by-passing the guilds)The factory system grew rapidly in England, and over time it spread to, and across mainland Europe

The Textile IndustryLooms and spinning wheels crowded small rural dwellingsTextile work was a family enterprise women and children cleaned and spun cotton/wool into yarn, the men would weave it in to clothThe cottage industry allowed for couples to marry sooner and have larger familiesWidows and unmarried women (spinsters) helped relieve a shortage of labor Often workers were unreliable, to the chagrin of the merchants who employed them

The Atlantic EconomyEuropean mercantilism was supported through the use of navigation actsThe overall goal of mercantilism is a favorable balance of trade, to the benefit of the stateNavigation acts, at times, were used as a form of economic warfare War itself was a part of the landscape:Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century eventually devastated Dutch trade by 1700France and England became dominant on the high seas, fighting a series of wars between 1701 and 1763, most notably the War of Spanish Succession, the War of Austrian Succession and the 7 Years/French and Indian War (France lost all 3)

Growth of Foreign TradeIn the early 18th century, trade between England and mainland Europe wantedHowever, foreign trade outside of Europe (Africa and the Americas), including the lucrative slave trade (asiento), increasedFew slaves arrived in Northwest America most went to the Caribbean6.13 million trades between 1700 and 1800While British slave trade was abolished in 1801, it continued in its coloniesIncrease in demand led merchants to search for ways to increase supply, which eventually sparks the industrial revolution (more on that later)

Latin AmericaSpain recovered under the leadership of Philip V (of France - remember him?), revitalizing the army and the economySuccess in Spain led to success in its colonies abroad, and an increase in its holdings in North AmericaSilver mining recovered, allowing for Creoles to purchase more luxury and manufactured goods from the motherlandMestizos aspired to join the ranks of the CreolesDebt peonage allowed for cheap labor from African and Native American populations

Adam Smith and Anti-Mercantile PoliciesOver time, independent merchants rallied behind the idea of free trade, opposing the idea of state-sponsored monopolies and stifling government regulations (i.e., navigation acts)Adam Smith, in Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations, argued for free enterprise and developed the basis for modern economicsAccording to Smith, governments role should be limited to three things:Defense from foreign nationsMaintain civil order Sponsor public worksHe felt economies on their own would be regulated by an invisible hand of supply and demand, promoting the idea of economic liberalismMarriage and FamilyPrior to the 18th Century18th Century ChangeNuclear FamiliesMen and women married in their late twentiesLand still the main source of income (had to inherit)Community controls were in place and illegitimacy was rareBirth rate was also controlled by unsophisticated birth controlWorkYoung men plowed, wove, or small jobs in the cityYoung women spun, tended animals, domestic work outside of the home (often led to abuse)

Pattern of late marriage evolvesIllegitimacy explosionMore premarital sexFewer marriages between men and the women they got pregnantTwo possible explanationsCottage industry more money allows for early marriageGrowing population sent many more to the cities for work where community controls were less evident, men promise marriage but dont deliver

ChildrenPrior to the 18th Century18th CenturyAfter a late marriage, people had 6 or more children, however one in six would dieWealthy women on average had more children due to wet-nursingRumors of killing nursesInfanticide, especially girls, was commonFor all classes, emotional attachment did not occur before the age of 9Founding homes emergedEnlightened ideas fostered education (esp. Rousseau, in Emile)Elite women began to nurse their own childrenSwaddling ridiculedEducationPrior to 18th century18th centuryElementary education and literacy were growing, however still remained of little importance

Reformation encouraged reading the Bible and by 1800 had resulted in an increase in literacyPrussia led the way in universal education. Including compulsory attendance to school Literacy promoted reading: Wealthy read books of the enlightenmentCommoners read chapbooks, and impractical (fairy tales) as well as practical (home repair) booksAll classes read the Bible and almanacs

FoodPrior to 18th century18th centuryCommoners:Dark bread was the staple for commoners, supplemented by a few veggies (esp. beans) in the summer and soups in the winterBeverages include water, green beer, wine, skim milk (though milk used mostly in cheese and butter)Fruit, meat uncommon, except for lamb on holidaysLack of vitamin A and C a problem (scurvy)Urban dwellers had more varietyElite: Overconsumption of meat and fishWhile bread was eaten, veggies and fruits were rejected as food of the poorDrank heavilyConflict:Just price demanded by commonersGame laws prevented hunting on private property

Commoners:Potato became a common staple, replacing bread in some parts of EuropeCorn, tomatoes and squash also introducedLiquor cheaper, added to the list of beverages consumedElite:Demanded white bread (stripped of vitamins and proteins)Add sugar to their dietsConflict:Elite began to side with Adam Smith and reject price fixingPoor Catholic, Irish tenants forced by their English landlords to grow only potatoes

Impact of DietCommonersEliteOverall, when food was available, the diet was healthyWhile meat was rare, dark bread , beans, eggs and cheese provide proteinPotatoes rich in vitamins A, C and vital minerals helped prevent scurvy

Gorging on white bread, meats and sweets had its problems:GoutPoor dental healthobesityMedicinePrior to the 18th century18th centuryMedieval humorsCare provided by:Faith healers attribute illness to demons. Apothecaries provide medicines, purging and bloodlettingPhysicians apprentices, also use purging and bloodletting. Mostly used by urban eliteSurgeons - categorized with butchers and barbersMidwives - usually single women due to medieval modesty

By 1700, professions limited to men, except for midwivesFaith healers and apothecaries still provide care for commoners, with physicians tending the eliteSurgeons improve in status:Wars provide a living labWorked without benefit of painkillersBacteria still a problemMidwives challenged by surgeons, however still remain the first choice for child delivery

Hospital Care and ExperimentationPrior to 18th Century18th CenturyHospitals were four walls of filth and deathPaupers viewed them as a conspiracy to kill themMental hospitals often chained patients to wallsReliable experimentation was practically non-existentEfforts were made to clean hospitals and improve ventilationMental hospitals began to treat people like patients and not prisonersUsing a Bacon-like experimentation process, Edward Jenner came up with a smallpox vaccinationReligion and Popular CulturePrior to the 18th Century18th CenturyLocal Christian parishes provided spiritual comfort and for the needs of the massesPriests were the bookkeepers of historyLocal traditions were often embedded in religious practice, and officials attempted to extinguish those tiesThe Protestant Church crushed traditional beliefs in attempt to purify their churchesMore state control was put on churches (both Protestant and Catholic)Pietism began to grow as the common population became dissatisfied rebelling against Puritan reform and an Enlightened elite who challenged their ways:Wanted more emotional form of worshipFurther encouraged salvation and reading the Bible by all classesConnected faith with everyday moral behaviorPietismProtestantCatholic Best Example John WesleyTroubled by state control of the Church of England, as well as social discrimination, he began preaching in open-air fieldsEnthusiastic followers known as MethodistsMessage of hope, joy and salvation for all

Opposite reaction:Hierarchy began to purify practices as protestant churches had previously done, however preferred to compromise with, rather than crush, traditional pagan beliefsException: Joseph I of Austria who witnessed a backlash of anger when he tried to purify religious practicesLeisure and RecreationPrior to the 18th century18th centuryCarnival World turned upside down enjoyed by all:occurred prior to LentDrinking, dancing, masqueradingPeasants turned lords, fools turned philosophersOpportunity to ventLeisure of Commoners:Women sewing circles, sometimes invited men as possible suitorsMen local tavernAll would gather for story telling and religious events (weddings, baptism, etc)Leisure of urban common and elite:Variety of amusements including spectator sports and blood sportsReligious eventsEducated elite began to distance themselves from commoners and looked down on carnival, spectator and blood sports as vulgar Sharp class conflict was increasing