Challenges in obstetric prescription

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allenges in obstetric rescription Food, Drug & Medico - surgical committee FOGSI Chairperson-Dr. Ragini Agrawal 2009-2011

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challenges in obstetric prescriptionBeautiful Slide Show By Editor Dr. Ragini Agrawal And Dr. Tamkeen khanDr. Ragini Agrawal, Chairperson Food , Drug & medico surgical Equipment Committee 2009-2011

Transcript of Challenges in obstetric prescription

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EditorsDr Ragini Agrawal

Dr Tamkeen Rabbani

• 2009• President-• Dr C.N.Purandare• Vice president• Dr H.R. Patnaik

• 2010• President-• Dr Sanjay Gupte• Vice president• Dr Jaideep

Malhotra

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Dr Ragini AgrawalDr Tamkeen Rabbani How To Prescribe Antibiotics In Pregnancy

Dr Seema Hakim Counseling for Prescribing in Pregnancy

Dr. Nasreen Noor Drug Abuse During Pregnancy

Dr Sabahat Rassool Teratology Dr Shaheen Categorization of Drugs in Pregnancy

Dr Alami Zeba Safe Drugs for Common Diseases in Pregnancy

Dr Zehra Mohasin Vaccination In Pregnancy

Contributors— Challenges of obstetrics

prescription –A conceptual consideration

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Unfulfilled dreams

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• The developing organism is unique in its responsiveness to drugs and predictability of therapeutic effectiveness based on the adult can lead to grave consequences in the neonate and child. It should be emphasized that fetal adverse drug effects are not always manifested immediately as in the case of maternal thalidomide ingestion. It is important to note that fetal abnormalities can occur after several months as seen with clonidine or in the case of DES vaginal adenocarcinoma can take 20 years to develop. Based on limited reported effects in humans and more extensive studies with animals, drugs are classified as to the risk of induction of fetal toxicity in categories ranging from A (safe) to D (contraindicated in pregnancy). A separate extremely toxic category X is also used.

Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994 Jul;32(7):335-43.• Fetal consequences and risks attributed to the use of prescribed and

over-the-counter (OTC) preparations during pregnancy.

• Kacew S, Department of Pharmacology, University of Ottawa, Faculty of Medicine, Ontario, Canada.

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Very high doses of vitamin A, D and E in pregnancy have been linked to birth defects. Professor Owens said doctors should not underestimate the dosage of vitamin supplements that some pregnant women consumed, particularly if they used high-potency multivitamins.

Professor Julie Owens, from Adelaide University's school of pediatrics and reproductive health,

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Immunosuppressant Drug Causes Birth Defects

American Journal of Medical Genetics.

Insect repellent linked to birth defects

Pregnant women may wish to avoid insect repellent after a study found a link to an increasingly common birth defect, experts say

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Some prescription meds can harm fetusNovember 17, 2009 More than six percent of expectant mothers in Quebec consume prescription drugs that are known to be harmful to their fetuses, according to a Université de Montréal investigation published in the British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. .

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Asthmatic children: Did mom use her pump during pregnancy?October 5, 2009 Expectant mothers who eschew asthma treatment during pregnancy heighten the risk transmitting the condition to their offspring, according to one of the largest studies of its kind published in the European Respiratory Journal. A research team from the Université de Montréal, the Hôpital du Sacré-Cœur de Montréal and Sainte-Justine University Hospitl Research

Center found that 32.6 percent of children born to mothers who neglected to treat their asthma during pregnancy developed the respiratory illness themselves.

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Sexually transmitted disease, urinary tract infections may be bad combination for birth defectJune 20, 2008

[B]Chances of gastroschisis increase fourfold in babies whose moms have both infections[/B] University of Utah researchers report in the online British Medical Journal.

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Epilepsy drug may increase risk of birth defectsJuly 21, 2008

Taking the epilepsy drug topiramate alone or along with other epilepsy drugs during pregnancy may increase the risk of birth defects, according to a study published in the July 22, 2008, issue of Neurology, the medical of the American Academy of Neurology

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y

Local health investigation sheds light on gastroschisis birth defectNovember 6, 2009 Results of an investigation conducted by University of Nevada, Reno researchers, public health officials and area physicians published this week in the Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, indicate that Washoe County experienced a cluster of a particular birth defect, gastroschisis, during the period April 2007 - April 2008. This study added significant

support to the findings of other studies that certain infections, such as colds and sore throats; use of cold medications, such as pseudoephedrine; and some recreational drugs, may be contributing factors in the development of gastroschisis.

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Concerns during pregnancy

• Fear of teratogenesis• Need to safeguard the smooth

progress of pregnancy and delivery

• Need to prevent withdrawal effects in the neonate

• Concerns about subtle effects on the infant’s neurodevelopment

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Concerns & considerations

• congenital abnormalities caused by human teratogenic drugs accounts for less than 1% of total congenital abnormalities.

• About 8% of pregnant women need permanent drug treatment due to various chronic diseases and pregnancy-induced complications.

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Concerns & considerations

• Moreover in India, due to easy availability of drugs coupled with inadequate health services, increased proportions of drugs are used as self medication (for common complains and infective conditions), as compared to the prescribed drugs.

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Concerns & considerations

• Woman always face the threat of adverse drug reactions and drug interactions between active hidden ingredients of both herbal and allopathic drugs.

• Un planned pregnancy is a bigger issue as she is already on potential teratogenic medicine or had inadvertently during early period of conception

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Concerns & considerations

• Reducing medication errors and improving patient safety are the important areas of discussion

• The use of drugs during pregnancy calls for special attention because in addition to the mother, the health and life of her unborn child is also at stake.

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Concerns & considerations

• Since it is very difficult to determine the effects on the fetus before marketing new drugs due to obvious ethical reasons, most drugs are not recommended to be used during pregnancy

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Concerns & considerations

• Since there are numerous gaps in knowledge about deleterious consequences for the fetus, prescription drug use by pregnant women should be viewed as a public health issue.

• Pharmaco-epidemiological studies can measure the extent of prescription and teratogenic drug use in pregnant women.

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Prescription drugs and pregnancy.

• Prescribing drugs in pregnancy is an unusual risk-benefit situation.

• Drugs that may be of benefit or even life-saving to the mother can deform or kill the fetus. However, the risk to the fetus should not be exaggerated.

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Important points

• There are only approximately 20 groups of drugs which are known to cause birth defects in humans.

• For one of these drugs to cause birth defects, a number of criteria must be fulfilled.

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Important points

• The drug exposure must take place at a critical stage of pregnancy

• The dose must be high enough to cause a threshold of exposure for an appropriate duration of time.

• For most of the known human teratogens, > 90% of pregnancies exposed during the first trimester result in normal offspring.

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Important points

• Although only a few drugs are known to cause birth defects in humans, uncertainty about the safety of the majority may lead to under prescribing for pregnant women and women of childbearing age.

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Important points

• Safety in animal studies may also be reassuring but species differences demand caution in this interpretation.

• Concerns about prescription drugs in the first trimester, when they can cause birth defects, are mostly quite different to concerns about use in the second and third trimesters.

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Important points

• As the fetal organ systems mature, the fetus can be affected by the pharmacological activity of the drug in the same way as the mother.

• Many drugs have pharmacological effects on the fetus in the second and third trimesters but in most cases, they are well recognised and can be managed or avoided.

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Important points

• Fear of litigation is an unfortunate and an unwanted parameter in the assessment.

• Better knowledge of the parameters that determine teratogenicity may allow physicians to feel more confident in assessing the risks and benefits associated with prescribing in pregnancy

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Drug classification • Although the pregnant mother may require treatment of

certain disorders, there are a number of drugs which are absolutely contraindicated including those agents in risk category X and the socially unacceptable drugs of abuse.

• A limited use for drugs in category D under close supervision may be necessary .

• .Prescribed drug use in pregnancy should be dissuaded. Further ingestion of over-the-counter (OTC) preparations should be limited and deemed to be used with caution.

• It is generally accepted that the pregnant mother provides a fetus an environment in which to develop. However, drug exposure in utero is far more deleterious than in the growing child as the fetus lacks the ability to cope with pharmaceutical agents entering its biosphere.

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Objective For Discussion

• Rational use of drugs in pregnancy

• Clear understanding of Teratogens & birth defects

• Substance abuse effects on pregnancy

• Role of Counselling for Prescribing in Pregnancy

• Clear concept of Categorization of Drugs in Pregnancy

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Introduction

• Pregnancy is a physiological condition where drug treatment presents a special concern.

• The concern has been influenced by historical events, including Thalidomide crisis in 1960’s & Di-ethyl stilboestrol in 1971.

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Introduction contd.

• There are other organizations such as Australian Categorization of Risk of drugs use in pregnancy.

• But the most widely used system are the FDA & TERIS (Teratogen information system) pregnancy risk classifications.

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The FDA Categorization of Drugs in Pregnancy

• Category B- Animal studies have not demonstrated a fetal risk but there are no controlled studies in pregnant women,

or

Animal studies have shown an adverse effect that was not confirmed in controlled studies in women in any trimester

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The FDA Categorization of Drugs in Pregnancy

• Category C- Studies in animals have revealed adverse effects on the fetus (teratogenic or embryocidal or other) and there are no controlled studies in women

or studies in women and animals are

not available. Drugs should be given only if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.

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The FDA Categorization of Drugs in Pregnancy

• Category D- There is positive evidence of fetal

risk, but the benefits from use in pregnancy may be acceptable despite the risk

e.g. if the drug is needed in a life-threatening situation for which safer drugs cannot be used or are ineffective.

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The FDA Categorization of Drugs in Pregnancy

• Category X- Studies in animals or humans have

demonstrated fetal abnormalities, or

there is fetal risk based on human experience or both, and the risk clearly outweighs any possible benefit.

The drug is contraindicated in women who are or may become pregnant.

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Drug Safety System: the problems

• Pregnant women are excluded from pre-licensure clinical trial, for fear of harming the mother or developing fetus

• Most drugs are marketed with limited information on their safety during pregnancy and therefore are not recommended for use by pregnant women.

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Drug Safety System : the problems & solutions

• Therefore the U.S. FDA has overhauled safety issues related to drugs by provisions in the FDA Amendments Act (FDAA)

• The legislation instructs FDA to establish a system that can access drug safety data on 25 million patients by 2010 and 100 million by 2012

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Drug Safety System : the problems & solutions

• The US FDA and the European Medicine Agency recommend active surveillance, such as the use of Pregnancy Exposure Registers (PERs)

• Another important component of the sentinel system is a more modern and expanded FDA Spontaneous Adverse Event Reporting System (AERS).

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Drug Safety System : the problems & solutions

• The FDA is collaborating with the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Institute of Health (NIH) on a standard and common reporting method of adverse events for all FDA regulated products.

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Drug Safety System : the problems & solutions

• The FDA also plans to combine safety-signal detection and analysis for drugs, biologics, medical devices, and other regulated products into an agency – wide FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) and a user friendly Medwatch plus portal

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Drug Safety System : the limitations

• Resources for routine pharmaco-vigilance are rare and automated data sources generally do not exist in developing world

• In industrialized countries the drug information can be derived from medical records and automated databases, including medical or pharmacy insurance claims

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Drug Safety System : the limitations

• Troubling news about several high-profile drugs saps confidence in the system for assuring the supply of safe ones and

flushing out dangerous medicines

• No drug is ever fully safe. The safety net isn't designed to catch rare side effects until drugs reach the market.

• By then, regulators are often powerless to spot mistakes

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Drug Safety System : the limitations

The massive import of drugs also poses problems.

The FDA conducts inspections of plants, amid explosive growth in imports from India and China, to ensure that the drugs are of high quality.

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Drug Safety System : the limitations

The low level of follow up inspection, combined with the huge amount of imports, greatly increases the potential that consumers will get products that have impurities or ineffective ingredients.

Brant Zell pastchairman of the Bulk

pharmaceuticals Task force

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"If a plane crashes off the coast of New York, we don't leave the investigation to the controllers that were controlling the plane and the airline that was flying it,"

Dr. Alastair Wood, a Vanderbilt University pharmacologist and FDA

drug safety adviser.

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New drug trials in pregnancy:

A recent review found that only 17 medications for maternal health are are being developed world wide, and many advocates say that the “drought” of new medications to treat pregnant women is unlikely to change any time soon,

USA today reports

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This building is on very shaky ground. Would I condemn it ? No but I would tell

people, ‘ you go in at your risk’

Dr Cathrine De Angel , Editor, JAMA

The answer to the problems is to have an evidence based review system for guiding prescribing in pregnancy

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Despite such limitations thousands of Americans survive or lead better lives

thanks to effective and safe drugs.• "Medicines that receive FDA

approval are among the safest in the world,"

Acting Commissioner Lester Crawford

• The FDA has commissioned the independent non-profit Institute of Medicine to study drug safety and recommend improvements.

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Evidence Based Review System

The FDA’s evidence based review system

• Identifies scientific studies that evaluate the substance/disease relationships

• Identifies surrogate endpoints of disease risk

• Assesses the quality of scientific studies

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Evidence Based Review System

• Evaluates the totality of the scientific evidence

• Assesses SSA (significant scientific agreement)

• Analyzes the specificity of the claim language of a QHC (Qualified health claim)

• Revaluates existing SSA claim and existing QHCs

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REPRORISK System

The single most comprehensive compilation of Reproductive Risk Information Databases

Benefits:• Provides guideline for reducing

exposures.• Helps to prevent possible medical

and legal complications

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REPROTEXT

A Reproductive Hazard Reference

• Presents reviews on health effects of industrial chemicals encountered in the work place.

• Describes effects on human reproduction of acute and chronic exposures and reproductive, carcinogenic, and genetic influences

• Includes unique dual health hazard ranking system for general society and “grade card” scale suggesting level of reproductive hazard.

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REPROTEXT

• Covers physical agents including heat, noise, and radiation.

• Helps set risk – reducing priorities by combining hazard rankings with exposure estimates.

• Assists with development of program to improve employee protection guidelines

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REPROTOX

Reproduction Hazard Information –

From the reproductive toxicology centre, Bethesda, MD, covers the impact of the physical and chemical environment on human reproduction and development.

Covers all aspects of reproduction including fertility, male exposures and lactation

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REPROTOX

• Discusses reproductive influences of industrial and environmental chemicals, naturally occurring radioactive materials, prescription non-prescription, and recreational drugs and nutritional agents

Includes the latest, most relevant teratology articles

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Conclusion

• The most widely used system for categorizing drug risk during pregnancy in the United States are the FDA and TERIS pregnancy risk classification.

• Controlled data on using medication during pregnancy and lactation are lacking, making firm recommendations more difficult.

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Conclusion

• Pregnancy risk categories should be used as general guide lines to help choose safer medications alternatives.

• Useful print and internet resources

help guide national medication selection during pregnancy and lactation

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Don't endanger your baby by taking harmful

medication!

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Introduction

• 40-90% women are exposed to drugs in pregnancy

• The safety of more than 60% of these drugs for the fetus and the mother is unknown

• Known teratogens sometimes are required for the pregnant patient to treat life-threatening conditions

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The Problems:

• Some pregnant women are exposed to drugs inadvertently because they do not know they are pregnant at the time of intake

• Often women requesting counseling for prenatal drug exposure have misconceptions regarding the risks

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The Problems:• The problem is compounded by

referral sources who exaggerate the risk and offer termination.

• Inaccurate reports in the lay press further cause panic.

• Most women report for counseling only after exposure rather than coming for prenatal counseling

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Concerns during pregnancy

• Fear of teratogenesis• Need to safeguard the smooth

progress of pregnancy and delivery

• Need to prevent withdrawal effects in the neonate

• Concerns about subtle effects on the infant’s neurodevelopment

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Concerns during pregnancy

Pregnancy likely to unmask occult chronic diseases e. g. glucose intolerance, hypertension

Pregnancy is a “stress test for life”

Obstetric complications and increasing maternal age will add to overall rates of poor outcome.

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Prenatal Counseling

• Counseling should include both the fetal risk from the drug as well as the teratogenic risk of the condition for which the drug is being prescribed e.g epilepsy and diabetes which are associated with a higher malformation rate per se.

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Prenatal Counseling

• The manner in which the information is given affects the perception of the risk e.g.. Women given negative information– such as a 1-3% chance of having a malformed baby are more likely to perceive an exaggerated risk as compared to women given positive information– the 97-99% chance of having a normal baby

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Prenatal Counseling

• Exposure to a known teratogen may increase this risk, but it is usually increased by only 1-2%, or at the most doubled or tripled.

• Counseling should emphasize relative risk

• The concept of risk versus benefit should also be introduced before prescribing

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Certain questions need to be answered---

• What are the implications of the disease itself for which the drug is to be given regarding risk of anomaly?

• What are available sources of information about its use in pregnancy and its effects on the fetus?

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-----Etiology Of Malformations

• Cause is unknown in 60-70% of malformations

• It is estimated that---- - 20-25% are genetic - 3-5% due to intra-uterine

infections - 4% due to maternal disease

like diabetes, epilepsy

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Next we should evaluate the risk of teratogenicity.

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Evaluating the Risk

• Few drugs are known teratogens but no information is available for more than 60% of the drugs to allow an assessment of the risk to the fetus

• Major text books, FDA categorization, computerized data-bases such as TERIS, REPROTOX etc. provide information for assessment of potential risks.

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But are these methods appropriate & adequate for risk

evaluation?

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Limitations of FDA Categorization

Rarely updated, does not reflect current scientific data e.g oral pills still in category X though teratogenicity has been disproved

No information on degree of risk

The system bases drug ratings on limited animal data or case reports.

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History

• LMP for accurate gestational dating

• Detailed information regarding

class, dose, route of administration, timing of exposure according to gestational age, disease being treated

• Detailed family history and genetic pedigree

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History

• it can be confirmed that the exposure was before conception or organogenesis then the counseling may simply consist of reassuring the patient.

• Determine whether the drug is absorbed in circulation or has only local effect and then will not harm the fetus eg. Laxatives, local Antacids

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History

• Determine whether agent crosses the placenta eg even LMW Heparin does not cross and so no fetal effects.

• For known teratogens eg. Isotretinoin having established risk of anomaly and when exposure in a given period of gestation has been documented --termination may be offered.

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counseling

The counselor may explain the risk as follows---

“ although a small risk cannot be ‘ruled out’, the risk of spontaneous anomalies is probably greater than any risk that can be estimated from available information for most medications that have been studied.”

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counseling

• If delay is unsafe, treatment should be started, even if risk is involved and termination may be offered after counseling e.g.chemotherapy for acute leukemia should be initiated as soon as diagnosis is confirmed irrespective of gestational age.

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Prescribing in pregnancy

• Consider non drug options

• Avoid drugs if possible during weeks 6-10

• Do not start any medication unless clearly indicated

• Do not discontinue medicines that successfully maintain the maternal condition unless there are clear indications to do so

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Prescribing in pregnancy

• Ask about and document non-prescription medicines

• Have a pregnancy medication reference available

• Favor older medicines with longer record of use

• Keep doses low before delivery if possible

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Prescribing in pregnancy

• Consult with pediatrician.• Educate your patient• Report adverse outcomes• Always consider the effect of

not treating• Remember that few drugs are

absolutely contraindicated

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Avoid polypharmacy in pregnancy

• Optimize non-pharmacologic alternatives

• Determine whether each medication:– Is necessary– Is effective– Is at lowest effective dose–Does not adversely alter

other medication effect

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•Support–Educate-- all medicines, even

over-the-counter have adverse effects, report all products used

–Encourage use of one pharmacist

–Avoid seeing multiple physicians

–Enlist help of family, friends, caregivers

– Medication organization equipment

• Survey-Periodic review

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Process of Rational PrescribingDefine the patient’s problem

Specify the Therapeutic objective

Verify if treatment is suitable for this patient

Start the Treatment

Give information, instructions and warnings

Monitor and stop treatment

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Wisdom and knowledge are the key to good counseling and prescribing in pregnancy!

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Teratology

Dr Sabahat Rasool, MBBS, MS JNMC, AMU, Aligarh

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Little Angels

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These Rotten Things…

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And These…

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And These…

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Teratology – A Historical

Perspective• 15th & 16th centuries –

malformations caused by the devil: mother & child killed

• 1900’s –malformations related to genes

• 1941 –malformations linked to rubella virus

• 1960’s – Thalidomide Tragedy• 1970’s – Fetal Alcohol

Syndrome

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Chemicals & teratogenicity

• Approximately 80,000 chemicals listed by EPA in the USA

• Most of them not tested for developmental toxicity

• For example, High Production Volume (HPV) chemicals

• Mercury & lead are good examples

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Teratology

• A Teratogen is any agent acting during embryonic or fetal development to produce a permanent alteration of form or function (Shepard, 1998)

• Teratogenesis is derived from the Greek words gennan which means to produce, and terata, which means monster

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Teratogen – Types

• Hadegen – named after the God Hades, agent that interferes with normal maturation and function of organ

• Trophogen – an agent that alters growth

• Teratogen – an agent that produces structural abnormalities

• Most authors use the term teratogens to describe all three: hadegen, trophogen, and teratogen

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Definitions

• Malformation- structural defect from a localised error of morphogenesis

• Disruption- specific abnormality due to disruption of normal developmental process

• Deformation- an alteration in shape/ structure of a previously normal organ

• Syndrome- a recognised pattern of malformations with a specific agent/ etiology

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Teratogens--Classification• Viruses (rubella, toxoplasma,CMV)• Chemicals (methyl mercury,

pesticides, PCBs, alcohols)• Environmental agents (alcohol,

tobacco, cocaine)• Physical factors (radiation,

hyperthermia, atomic fallouts)• Drugs (phenytoin, thalidomide,

retinoids, warfarin, DES)• Maternal factors (hyperthermia,

diabetes)

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Wilson’s Six Principles

2. Susceptibility to teratogenesis varies with the developmental stage at the time of exposure.

3. Teratogenic agents act in specific ways on developing cells and tissues to initiate sequences of abnormal developmental events

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Wilson’s Six Principles

4. The access of adverse influences to developing tissues depends on the nature of the influence.

5. There are four manifestations of deviant development (Death, Malformation, Growth Retardation and Functional Defect)

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Wilson’s Six Principles

• 6. Manifestations of deviant development increase in frequency and degree as dosage increases from the No Observable Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) to a dose producing 100% Lethality (LD100)

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Criteria for Proof of Human

Teratogenicity• Careful delineation of clinical

cases

• At least three reported cases of rare environmental exposure associated with rare defect

Shepard, 2001, Czeizel & Rockenbaeur, 1997 & Yaffe and Briggs 2003)

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Criteria for Proof of Human

Teratogenicity• A biologically plausible

association

• Consistent findings by two or more high quality epidemiological studies

• Teratogenicity in experimental animals, especially primates

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Timing of Organogenesis

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 16 20 38

Implantation

Prenatal Death

Emryonic period

Major Morphological abnormalities

Fetal Period

Physiological and Functional Defects

Central Nervous System

Heart

Ears

Eyes

Limbs

Palate

External Genetalia

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Timing of organogenesis during

the embryonic development

• Pre-implantation period starts from 2 weeks from fertilisation to implantation

• Also known as the ‘all or none’ period

• Any insult at this stage leads to

embryonic death.

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Timing of exposure- pre-implantation stage

• Exposure of embryos to teratogens during the pre-implantation stage usually does not cause congenital malformations, unless the agent persists in the body beyond this period.

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Fetal Period

• Fetal period starts after 9 weeks post fertilisation till term. Exposure during this period will affect fetal growth (e.g., intrauterine growth restriction), the size of a specific organ, or the function of the organ. The term fetal toxicity is commonly used to describe such an effect .

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The Thalidomide Disaster

• During late 50s and early 60s, more than 10,000 children in 46 countries were born with deformities such as phocomelia, as a consequence of thalidomide use.

• Withdrawn in 1961

• Thalidomide tragedy led to stricter testing being required for drugs before they can be licensed

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Thalidomide- The most notorious teratogen

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

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Genetic & Physiological Mechanisms of Teratogenecity

• Folic acid metabolism disruption

• Toxic oxidative intermediates• Fetal genetic makeup• Homeobox genes• Maternal diseases or paternal

exposures

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Folic Acid

• Disruption of folic acid metabolism may lead to neural tube defects (NTDs), cleft lip & palate, and even Down’s Syndrome

• Folic acid is needed for production of methionine, and methylation of proteins, lipids and myelin

• (Hernandez Diaz et al, 2000, NEJM)

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Oxidative Intermediates

Drugs- Hydantoin Carbamazapine, Phenobarbital

Epoxides – Carcinogenic, Mutagenic

FETALEpoxide hydroxylase - weak

No detoxification

Epoxides Accumulate

ADULTEpoxide hydroxylase

Detoxified

Microsomes

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Fetal Genetic Makeup

• Interaction of environment and certain altered genes may lead to malformations

• MTHFR 677C → T mutation is associated with NTDs, but only when folate intake is inadequate

Hwang et al, 1995, Am J Epidemiol)

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Mutations to homeobox genes can produce easily visible

phenotypic changes

• Arrangement of the genes along the chromosome corresponds to the arrangement of the body areas they control

• Genes at the 3-prime end of the chromosome control the cranial region and are expressed before those at the 5-prime end, which control the caudal region (Faiella et al, 1994, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA)

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Homeobox Genes and Teratogens

• Some teratogens, (retinoids) activate homeobox genes prematurely, leading to chaotic expression at different sensitive stages of development, especially causing abnormalities of limb buds and hindbrain

• Valproate alters the expression of Hox d8, d10 & d11 genes, preventing normal closure of posterior neuropore

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Maternal diseases

• Interaction of maternal disease with fetal genetic composition determines some drug effects e.g alcoholic mothers have nutritional deficiencies and also abuse other drugs. Fetuses exposed to these combined adverse effects will be at higher risk of malformations.

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Paternal exposures

• Paternal exposure to teratogens can act by inducing gene/ chromosomal abnormality in sperm.

• Another possibility is that a drug in seminal fluid may directly contact the fetus during intercourse.

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Drugs and the lactating mother:

• The physiologic processes that govern the excretion of drugs in breast milk are the same as that which determine the transfer of drugs through placenta.

• Toxicity therefore depends on pharmacological characteristics of the drug

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Conclusion

• Toxicity most of the time is reversible and is related to prolonged and continuous use of drug

• But there are exceptions where a single dose may be associated with fetal / newborn toxicity e.g narcotic analgesics close to delivery may cause sinusoidal fetal heart rate pattern or respiratory depression of newborn

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Conclusion

• Therefore when a woman requires drug therapy during pregnancy or lactation, particularly prolonged / continuous use, the lowest possible dose should be used and monitoring should be done to detect any signs of toxicity.

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Objectives

• To summarize the safest drug for treating common conditions in pregnancy

• To discuss the teratogenic potential of drugs which sometimes must be prescribed in pregnancy to treat life-threatening conditions.

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Medications used to manage serious medical

complications / pregnancy complications:

• Hypertension, PIH, diabetes, cardiac disease, bronchial asthma, thyroid disease, cancers, poly-hydramnios, pre-term labor, general and local anesthetics,coagulation disorders, auto-immune disorders, epilepsy etc.

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Considerations

• Pharmokinetics are affected by physiologic changes of pregnancy and dose adjustments are needed to optimize the clinical outcome.

• Teratogenetic potential of the drug should be considered while prescribing

• Some may directly affect the fetus, others may cause harm by affecting maternal physiology e.g diuretics

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Analgesics

Salicylates and Acetaminophen

- Increase the risk of early spontaneous abortion.

- 1st trimester use may cause fetal gastroschisis.

- There is theoretical concern of premature closure of ductus arteriosus.

185

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Analgesics

• Indomethacin

• Used to treat hydramnios, and for tocolysis. May casue premature closure of ductus arteriosus and pulmonary hypertension in neonate. This effect is reversible if drug is not given after 34 weeks. Other adverse effects are – intraventricular hemorrhage, necrotizing enterocolitis and bronchopulmonary dysplasia

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Analgesics cont…

Narcotic analgesics :

- Chronic maternal ingestion may cause neonatal withdrawal syndrome.

- They may also cause neonatal respiratory depression and sinusoidal heart rate pattern in -utero.

188

morphine, codine, meperidine, propoxyphene

Not known to be teratogenic

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Analgesics cont…

Ergotamine and sumatriptan:

- Used for treatment of migraine headache.

- Use of ergotamine in 1st trimester may cause neural tube defect and leads to fetal bradycardia due to uterine contraction and decreased uterine blood flow.

- .189

Sumatriptan does not cause fetal anomalies and spares uterine vessels so better during pregnancy

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Antiemetics

Doxylamine : Non-teratogenic, safe in pregnancy

Piperazine and phenothiazines

[Metoclopramide. Chlorpromazine]

: Not associated with anomalies.

Ondansetron : Reserved for treatment of hyperemesis refractory to other medications as no human studies , [category B].

190

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Antacids Aluminum, Calcium, Magnesium

Magaldrate, Sodium Bicoarbonate. - These are not teratogenic safe if used in

moderation Long term high dose use may lead to maternal or fetal hyper-calcacemia, hyper-magnesemia or hypocalcaemia.

H2 receptor antagonists: (ranitidine)

- Not associated with congenital malformations even if used in 1st trimester though cross the placenta

Proton pump inhibitors: (Omeprazole)

- Can be used safely even in 1st trimester 191

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DecongestantsPseudoephedrine:-The most preferred decongestant as proven to be safe in pregnancy.

Phenylephrine and phenylpropanolamine:-Used in nasal sprays and eye drops.-No increased risk of anomalies but may interfere with uterine blood flow and should be avoided in pregnancy with decreased uterine blood flow (e.g.PIH)

192

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Antihistamines

• Ethanolamine, Piperidine, Butyrophenone and Piperazine derivatives :

All are non- teratogenic . Parenteral use of ethylamine

derivatives [Clemastine, Diphynhydramine] may have oxytocic effect.

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Antihistamines cont….

Non-sedating antihistamines:- Loratadine: No study to address its safety in pregnancy.-Cetrizine: There is no risk of congenital anomaly.-Astemizole and Fexofenadine are non teratogenic .-Chromolyn Sodium: safe even in 1st trimester

195

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Antitussives

Dextromethorphan: Not associated with congenital anomalies if used in first trimester.Narcotic containing: Neonatal withdrawal syndrome and respiratory depression may occur on long term use. Alcohol containing: Short term use has no adverse effect.

196

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Expectorants

Guaifenesin: - Most commonly used agent in expectorants- It does not increase the risk of birth defectsIodide containing expectorants:- Should not be used after 10 weeks as these may cause fetal goiter.

197

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Cardiac Medications

Digoxin:- Cardiac glycoside used to treat heart failure, atrial fibrillation or flutter and other supraventricular tachycardias.-Readily crosses the placenta but has no adverse fetal effects, -Successfully used to treat fetal arrythmias also.

198

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Cardiac Medications cont…

Quinidine:- Used as antiarrhythmic drug.- Dose used to treat arrhythmia is one tenth the dose used to treat severe malaria and has not been associated with fetal abnormalities.

199

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• Many local anesthetics are used as anti-arrhythmics e.g Lidocaine, Procainamide.

• These cross placenta but do not increase congenital malformations

• However short term use is different from long term use to treat arrhythmias as long term studies not available but we have to see risk-benefit ratio as arrhythmias may be life threatening.

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Verapamil: Used as antianginal,

antihypertensive and for arrhythmias.

Is associated with decreased

uterine flow, cardiac depression and cardiac arrest in neonates so give only if condition is life threatening and other agents are ineffective

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Antihypertensives

Methyldopa:- Most commonly used drug to treat hypertension during pregnancy.- Its many years of use attest its safetyHydralazine:- Used to treat hypertension in later half of pregnancy without adverse fetal effects.

204

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Antihypertensives cont….

Sodium Nitroprusside:- Readily crosses the placenta. - May lead to accumulation of cyanide in fetal liver.

Clonidine:- An α-adrenergic antagonist.- Has no adverse fetal effects.

205

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Antihypertensive cont…

β-blockers:

- long term use possibly associated with fetal growth restriction and neonatal hypoglycaemia.- May cause transient mild hypotension and symptomatic β- blockade in exposed newborns.

206

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Verapamil:- Associated with limb defects and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.- Causes cardiac depression and arrest if used with digoxin.Nifedipine:- Associated with fetal limb defects and pregnancy loss if used in early pregnancy .

Antihypertensives cont…

208

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Antihypertensives cont…

ACE inhibitors:-Decrease fetal renal perfusion which leads to oligohydramnios if used in II and III trimester.-Resulting oligohydramnios causes lung hypoplasia and limb contractures known as ACE inhibitor fetopathy

-Contra-indicated in pregnancy 209

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Diuretics Thiazides:-May cause neonatal thrombocytopenia, bleeding and electrolyte disturbances if given near term.Furosemide: •-May increase incidence of PDA in preterm newborns. •Crosses placenta increasing fetal urine production.• Increase utero-placental insufficiency and IUGR. •Given only when benefits outweigh risks as in pregnancy with heart disease or in pulmonary edema.

210

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Diuretics cont…

Spironolactone:-anti-androgenic and shown to cause feminization of male rats and delayed sexual maturation of female rats in-utero. Not been studied widely in pregnancyAcetazolamide:-Has been associated with limb defects in rodents but not in primates or humans. 211

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Anticoagulants

Warfarin: -Readily crosses the placenta.-Exposure between sixth and ninth week causes warfarin embryopathy characterized by nasal and midface hypoplasia and stippled vertebral and femoral epiphyses.-Second and third trimester exposure causes hemorrhage in several organs leading to disharmonic growth and deformation.-Contra-indicated in 1st trimester of pregnancy

212

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Anticoagulants cont…

Heparin:Has large and highly polar molecules that do not cross the placenta and thus are not associated with fetal anomalies, low birth weight or stillbirthMay cause maternal osteopeniaSafe in pregnancy

213

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Antiepileptics Phenytoin: -Fetal hydantion syndrome,10% of infants exposed will have major defects and 1/3rd will have minor defects. Carbamazepine: -Fetal hydantion syndrome and neural tube defect risk is 1% as compared to .1% for general population, but safest in pregnancy as compared to other drugs

214

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Valproate: Used for petit mal seizures Neural tube defects 1-2% risk of neural tube defects

which is 8-10 times more than the general population

Trimethadone and Paramethadone:

Craniofacial anomalies, microcephaly, growth deficiency and cardiac defects.

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Antiepileptics cont…Phenobarbital:Clefts, cardiac anomalies, urinary tract malformations.

Lamotrigine:Lower teratogenic risk than other antifolate anti convulsants.

Topiramate:Should be avoided in pregnancy.

216

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Asthma Medications

Beclomethasone and Prednisone:

- Have no adverse fetal effects. Given as inhalers for long term use and short term, parenteral for exacerbations.

Avoid Triamcinolone in

pregnancy as teratogen for animals

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Thyroid Disorder Drugs

Propylthiouracil: - May cause fetal goiter and

hypothyroidism- Clinically significant effects are

uncommon with the therapeutic doses.

Methimazole:- Associated with scalp defects,

esophageal and choanal atresia.

219

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Potassium Iodide & Sodium Iodide:

can be used for short term e.g for thyroid surgery or thyroid crisis but long term use may cause goitre in infant.

Thyroid Replacement drugs: Thyroxin does not cross

placenta significantly and is not associated with anamolies

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Anti Neoplastic Drugs

- Breast carcinoma, melanoma and Hodgkin’s lymphoma are the most common malignancies in pregnant women.

- Most chemotherapeutic agents impede cell growth and cell division.

- Cause congenital anomalies and growth retardation.

221

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Diethylstilbestrol:- Vaginal clear cell

adenocarcinoma.- Cervical ectropion and vaginal

adenosis.- Hypoplastic, T-shaped uterine

cavity.- Cervical collars, hoods, septa

and coxcombs.- Exposed males may have

epididymal cysts, microphallus, cryptorchidism, testicular hypoplasia and hypospadias.

226

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Psychotropics

Diazepam:- Most widely used tranquilizer.- Increased risk of cleft palate, limb

malformation and other defects in rodents.

- It’s teratogenic effects in humans is controversial.

- Neonatal depression and withdrawal symptoms on long term use.

227

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Psychotropics cont…

Lithium salts:- Ebstein anomaly- May also cause diabetes insipidus, hypothyroidism and hypoglycemia.

Selective Serotonine Reuptake Inhibitors:- Not associated with fetal losses and malformations- can be used safely as antidepressant in pregnant women.

228

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Immuno Suppressives

Azathioprine:- Growth restriction, immune suppression and pancytopenia may occur in exposed neonates.

Should not be with held from pregnant patients as given for prevention of rejection in renal transplant

230

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Immuno Suppressives cont…

Cyclosporine:- Causes maternal nephro-toxicity but safe for fetus, cannot be withheld in pregnancy as prescribed for life-threatening conditions

Tacrolimus:- Cause abortions and anomalies in animals but not in humans.- May lead to preterm delivery, hyperkalemia growth restriction and nephrotoxicity. 231

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Others

Antifungals: Local agents like Clotrimazole and

Nystatin are safe. Fluconazole parenteral in high doses is associated with anomalies like brachycephaly, heart defects, cleft palate. Single oral dose is not associated with increased frequency of anomalies.

Griseofulvin not safe in pregnancy

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Antivirals

• Ziduvidine for AIDS and a Acyclovir for Herpes are safe in pregnancy

• Ribavarin used for treating resiratory viral infections as aerosol is highly teratogenic.

• No human data available for Idoxuridine, Gangcyclovir, Indinavir, Lamivudine, Nevirapine etc

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Antiparasitic drugs

• Metronidazole for Trichomoniasis and Amebiasis safe even in 1st trimester

• Chloroquine used for Malaria is safe• Quinine for falciparum malaria in

large doses often used as abortifacient increases risk of congenital abnormalities or when taken in 1st trimester.

• Mefloquine may cause stillbirth in 2nd or 3rd trimester

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Antiparasitic drugs

• Spiramycin, Pyremethamine, Sulphadiazine used for Toxoplasmosis are safe in pregnancy but concurrent administration of folic acid is needed with Pyrimethamine

• Mabendazole and Pyrantel pamoate safe in pregnancy

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Herbal Preparations

• It is difficult to estimate the risk of herbal remedies as the quantity and quality of the ingredients in these preparations are not known.

• Pregnant mothers should therefore be counseled to avoid these.

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Some known teratogens:

• Alcohol• Antiepileptics- phenytoin,

carbamazepine, valproate, phenobarbital, trimethadione, lamotragine

• Warfarin compounds• ACE-inhibitors• Retinoids• Hormones- androgens, danazole,

anabolic steroids, DES, androgenic progestogens

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Some known teratogens:

• Antineoplastic drugs- cyclophosphamide, methotrexate,

• Antimicrobials - tetracyclins, streptomycin, sulphonamides,

• Antifungals- griseofulvin, fluconazole

• Antivirals- ribavirin• Antimalarial- mefloquin

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How To Prescribe Antibiotics In

Pregnancy

Dr. Tamkin Rabbani MD, DNB, MICOG

Department of OBG, J.N. Medical College, AMU Aligarh.

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When I look upon the past, I can only dispel the sadness which falls upon me by gazing into that happy future when infection will be banished as a cause of maternal death and disability.

Philip

Sammuel Weiss

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Indian scenario is expected to be grimmer due to:

-Lack of regulatory agencies , -Poor enforcement of existing

regulations, --Lack of awareness of general population about teratogenic potential of various drugs.

It important that as

obstetricians we should know how to prescribe antibiotics correctly.

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Spectrum of problems

• Common infections encountered are cystitis, acute pyelonephritis, upper and lower respiratory tract infections, amnionitis, septic abortion, puerperal sepsis

• Typhoid, hepatitis, malaria and TORCH group of infections sometimes also present a therapeutic dilemma for us!

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• Surgical prophylaxis for cases like ovarian cystectomy, Mc Donald stitches, Bartholin abscess, Cesarean section, episiotomy etc. is required.

• Prevention of chorioamnionitis in both term and PTL with PROM also needs antibiotics

• Prophylaxis for prevention of streptococcal infection of neonates is needed.

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Today we have a whole array of antibiotics at our disposal but despite this sudden explosion in the number of antibiotics an obstetrician’s choice is limited because of the risk of teratogenecity and emergence of resistance against the tried and tested ones!

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• Predicting human teratogenicity from animal studies is difficult if not impossible!

• Package inserts do not provide guidance as to whether termination is indicated if a pregnant lady has inadvertently ingested that drug.

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• Simply mentioning that a particular drug crosses the placenta does not indicate potential fetal harm as:

-Drug may cross but may not harm

-Drug may not cross but have deleterious effects on fetus by affecting maternal physiology

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We are supposed to make the intelligent decisions!

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Commandments

• Discourage pregnant ladies from self medication.

• Warn pregnant ladies against smoking and drug abuse, environmental factors etc.

• All prescriptions should be evidence based.

• Avoid poly pharmacy in pregnancy.

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Antibiotics with potentially adverse fetal

effects• Tetracyclins- yellow-brown discoloration of

deciduous teeth• Aminoglycosides- oto-toxicity, 8th cranial nerve

damage and sensori-neural deafness in fetuses reported with streptomycin given in high doses for long-term use, risk of damage is 1-2% which is 20 times than that for general population

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Tetracyclin induced teeth discoloration

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Antibiotics with potentially adverse fetal

effectsSulfonamides and

trimethoprim-• Cross placenta and compete with

biliruben in fetus and in late gestation cal lead to neo-natal hyper-bilirubenemia.

• Avoid in pregnancy

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Antibiotics with potentially adverse fetal

effects• Fluroquinolones- irreversible arthropathy in animals,

so use only for resistant cases.

• N-methyl thio tetrazole containing cephalosporins-

testicular hypopasia in rats , no human studies

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Safe antibiotics in pregnancy

Penicillins- Ampicillin, Penicillin, Amoxicillin are

safe. Newer penicillins– Mezlocillin,

Piperacillin and those combined with Clavulanic Acid and Sulbactum not adequately studied in pregnancy so should be avoided.

All cross placenta and achieve high levels so used for treating fetal syphilis.

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Safe antibiotics in pregnancy

Cephalosporins- All cross placenta and achieve

high levels in fetus.1st generation cephalosporins and cefoxitin from 2nd generation cephalosporins are a better choice as they do not contain the side chain N-methyl thio tetrazole

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Safe antibiotics in pregnancy

• Erythromycin- does not cross placenta in

significant amount so does not prevent congenital syphilis. Azithromycin and Clarithromycin are probably safe and few studies available do not show an increased risk of anomalies if given in 1st trimester

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Safe antibiotics in pregnancy

Clindamycin- No human studies, but reaches fetus

in high levels so do not use except for local tablets for bacterial vaginosis. CDC states that clindamycin vaginal preparations should only be used during the first half of pregnancy.

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Evidence based treatment of some common infections in pregnancy: [WHO recommendations].

Asymptomatic bacteriuria: - Amoxicillin 3gms stat or - Ampicillin 2gms stat or - Nitrofurantoin 200 mg stat or - Cephalosporin 2gms stat or Single dose treatment is as

good as a 3 day course

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Cystits: - Amoxicillin 500 mgs TDS 3days - If treatment fails / recurs more

than 2-3 times send C/S and treat accordingly.

- For prevention of further attacks:

Co-trimaxazole / NFT 100 mgs/ Amox 250 mgs HS till delivery and 2 weeks of puerperium.

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Acute pyelonephritis:

- Ampicillin 2g IVI 6 hrly plus Gentamycin 5 mg /kg b wt

IVI OD till she is fever free for 48 hrs.

- If poor clinical response after 72 hours reevaluate and add anaerobic coverage.

- After treatment give Amox 1gm TDS 14 days,then 250 mgs HS till 2 weeks post partum.

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Pneumonia Community acquired infection is

usually caused by pneumococcal, Mycoplasma or Chlamydia so DOC is:

-Erythromycin 500- 1000 mgs 6 hrly x 7days orally or IVI depending on

severity. If no response: 3rd generation cephalosporin to be

started as cause may be Hemophilus or

staphylococcal infection.

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Acute Gastro-enteritis

• Mostly self limiting• Strict maintenance of fluid and

electrolyte balance is mandatory by oral Re hydration therapy or Parenteral fluids according to the condition of the patient.

- Attempt should be made for a specific diagnosis by simple stool examination and cephalosporin or metronidazole should be added accordingly.

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Septic Abortion

-Ampicillin 2gm IVI x 6 hourly plus Gentamycin 3-5 mg / kg body weight/day plus Metronidazole 500 mg IVI x 8 hourly till patient is fever free for 48 hours.

-Surgical management according to case.

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Metritis

-Use combination of antibiotics ampicillin plus gentamycin and metronidazole till fever free for 48 hrs.

- surgical management for retained products– D&C, laparotomy, hysterectomy according to situation

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Pregnancy with heart disease

• Ampicillin 2 gm IVI plus Gentamycin 1.5 mg per kg wt( max.80 mg.) IVI / IMI ½ hour prior to procedure followed by Amp 1gm IVI 6 hours of initial dose..

• Amoxicillin 3 gms orally stat then 1.5 gms after 6 hrs in low risk cases.

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Preterm PROM

• Use amoxicillin and erythromycin IVI for 48 hrs then orally for 7-10 days to prevent sepsis in mother.

• Do not use clavulanic acid as risk of necrotising entero-colitis in neonate.

• Ampicillin 2g iv 6 hourly or Penicillin G 2 m.u. IV 6 hourly for prevention of group B streptococcal infection of neonate.

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Term PROM Membranes ruptured >18 hours,

Ampicillin 2g IVI 6 hourly or Penicillin G 2 M.U.IVI 6 hourly for prevention of group B streptococcal infection of neonate.

• Stop antibiotics if she delivers normally and has no fever.

• Add metronidazole if she undergoes c/s and continue antibiotics till she is fever free for 48 hours

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Summary of treatment practices:

-As 1st line defence against serious infections give a combination of Amp 2gms 6 hrly plus Gentamycin 3-5 mg /kg b wt od and metronidazole 500 mg 8 hrly.

-If infection is not serious start Amoxicillin 500 mg 8 hrly plus Metronidazole 500 mg tds orally.

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-If above are not a possibility then switch over to Ceftriaxone 2gm IVI OD

-Continuation of antibiotics after

patient is fever free for 48 hrs has not been proven to have any additional benefit.

-Women with blood stream

infections however need antibiotics for a minimum of 7 days.

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Process of writing a rational prescription—

1. Define the patient’s problem.

2. Specify the therapeutic objective i.e. what do you want to achieve with the treatment.

3. Verify the suitability of your treatment i.e. check effectiveness and safety.

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While writing the treatment avoid polypharmacy--

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-----and jugglery!

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Give: information, instruction, warning.

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Keep uptodate

• Knowledge and ideas keep changing.

• New drugs are developed and experience with existing ones expand.

• Side effects become better known.

• New indications are discovered.

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The most important type of inefficiency in treatment is a combination of two separate groups, the use of ineffective therapies and the use of effective therapies at the wrong time.

  --Archibald Leman Cochrane

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To remain true to our Hippocratic oath we should remember our promise to ourselves as we entered the medical school---

I will apply for the benefit of the sick all measures that are required , avoiding the twin traps of over treatment and therapeutic nihilism.

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Drug Abuse During Pregnancy

Dr. Nasreen Noor Assistant Professor, Department of

Obs. & Gynae

J.N.M.C.,

Page 304: Challenges in obstetric prescription

Why do people take drugs ?

• It’s pleasurable

• Experimentation

• Introduction by

partners family or

friends• Low self

esteem• Mental Health

• Coping mechanism

• Escaping• Overwhelming• Emotions.• Managing

depression or anxiety

• Managing trauma

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A Major Reason People Take a Drug is they Like

What It Does to Their Brains

The first use is usually voluntary

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Women who use substances may:

• Feel anxious about becoming a parent.• Wonder what they can offer a child.• Need to explore the impact of the

pregnancy on their life style.• Have concerns about being stigmatised

or

judged in a hospital setting.

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Alcohol• Teratogen – risk of foetal alcohol

syndrome • Not known what is ‘safe level’ of

consumption, seems, binge drinking more problematic.

• (2007) English Dept of Health guidelines ‘no alcohol is safe,so avoid if pregnant or trying to conceive.

• Abstinence ‘ideal’ • Breast feeding : alcohol enters breast milk

but not stored.

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FASD

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

“ an umbrella term describing the range of effects that can occur in an individual whose mother drank during pregnancy. These effects may include physical, mental, behavioral, and/or learning disabilities with possible lifelong implications.”

Bertrand et al, 2004

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Epicanthal folds

Flat nasal bridge

Low set ears

Flat philtrum

Receding jawThin upper lip

Short, upturned nose

Flattened midface

Short palpebral fissures

Microcephaly

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Tobacco Increased likelihood of: miscarriage and

threatened miscarriage, prematurity, LBW, accidental haemorrage & perinatal death

• Ask if woman smokes• Advise (non confrontationally) to quit• Assess stage of change, level of

dependence• Assist (eg provide information, explore

persons doubts, tobacco cessation group)• Arrange follow up (eg at next A/N visit)

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Cocaine

• Associated with IUGR, placental abruption and premature rupture of the membranes

• Developmental problems observed.• Advise cessation, harm minimisation,

offer counseling• Breastfeeding: express and discard for

24hours after use

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Amphetamines

• Appetite depressant – poor maternal nutrition – low birth weight.

• If IV drug use – infection risks..• Possible link with cerebral ischemic

lesions • Advise cessation, counselling may be

of use• Breast feeding: Express and discard

for 24 hours

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Maternal Effects of Amphetamine During

Pregnancy• Increased maternal blood pressure• Increased maternal heart rate• Increased risk of premature birth• Constricts blood flow in the placenta,

thereby impacting oxygen flow to the fetus

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Effects of Amphetamine on the Developing fetus/infant

• Poor fetal growth—small for gestational age

• Elevated fetal blood pressure (stroke)• Birth defects (6 times the normal rate)

• Cleft palate/lip• Heart disease• Kidney disease• Omphalocele• Premature birth

• Placental hemorrhage

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Managing substance abuse in pregnancy

Antenatal care -Goal is to stop or reduce use of

recreational drugs • Detailed history including partner’s drug use &

sexual history• Consultation with a trainee in addiction

medicine• Consultation with anaesthesist may be

beneficial for labour analgesia• Specialist in USG to rule out structural

anomalies, defects and syndromes.

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Postnatal Care

• Pediatricians should be informed detailed history .

• Careful newborn examination for birth defects or withdrawal effects

• Early liaison with social work team is vital.

• Maternal withdrawal symptoms should be

looked for.• Sedative or replacement therapy if

indicated.

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Avoiding Relapse

It is also important to keep in mind that substances can continue to cause significant health problems to children after birth…

• Transmission through breast milk

• Environmental exposure to smoke

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Heroin

Short half life – mother and foetus experience withdrawal – may increase pre maturity, miscarriage associated with IUGR

• Illicit – unknown additives• If used IV – infection & life style issues .• Detoxification not advised - very high risk

of relapse, preferred treatment: stabilise women on methadone, counseling and psychosocial support

• Breastfeeding: not recommended

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Message

Care of women abusing recreational substances can be exasperating, but is worthwhile.

Although the mother’s health needs must be met,the well being and development of the fetus must not be neglected by her care taker.

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Introduction

• Vaccination is the single most important public health achievement of the 20th century.

• The word vaccination was first coined by Edward Jenner from the Latin word vacca for cow as the first vaccine was derived from the cowpox virus

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• No evidence exists of risk from vaccinating pregnant women with inactivated vaccines or toxoids.

• Benefits of vaccinating pregnant women usually outweigh potential risks when the likelihood of disease exposure is high.(1)

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Live Vaccines

• Provide long-lasting immunity. Single dose required.

• Contraindicated in pregnancy as they pose a theoretical risk of infection to fetus.

• If inadvertently given in pregnancy termination is not indicated as yet no vaccine related side effects are reported

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• Tetanus Toxoid(TT)/ Tetanus + Diphtheria (Td)

Indian national immunization schedule and WHO recommend 2 doses given IM, 4 weeks apart in the 2nd trimester (16-20 weeks)

In those who have been vaccinated,a single booster is adequate if next pregnancy is within 3 years (2).•

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• CDC recommends 3 doses of TD in un-immunised women.

• First 2 doses, 4 weeks apart, starting in 2nd trimester and 3rd dose 6 months after 2nd dose (postpartum).

• Single dose booster is recommended for women who have received TD vaccination within the last 10 years.(3)

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Hepatitis B Vaccine • Purified HbsAg produced by

recombinant technique.

• Recommended in ‘at risk’ women: Having more than 1 sex partner during the previous 6 months, evaluated or treated for STD, IV drug user or with a HbsAg +ve partner.

• Dose : 3 doses at 0, 1 and 6 months, IM (4).

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Influenza Vaccine • Trivalent killed virus vaccine

recommended for women who are pregnant in influenza season (Oct-March) but live attenuated influenza vaccine is contraindicated (5).

• Single dose – IMI

• Also contra indicated in those allergic to eggs

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Meningococcal Vaccine

• Mpsv4 is quadrivalent polysaccharide vaccine. Single dose - subcutaneous, recommended for those at risk for infection

• Mcv4 a quadrivalent conjugate vaccine may be given but data regarding safety is not available

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MMR Vaccine

• Live virus vaccine

• Pregnancy contraindicated for upto 28 days after vaccination.

• Routine pregnancy testing before vaccination in not necessary, if given inadvertently termination not recommended.

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HPV Vaccine

• The quadrivalent vaccine does not contain live virus and is categorized as category B drug by FDA

• If the woman is found to be pregnant after vaccination the remaining of the 3 dose regimen are to be given after delivery

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Pneumococcal Vaccine

• Polyvalent polysaccharide vaccine (ppv23) given in a single dose, SC or IM , repeat dose after 6 years

• Recommended in women with : Chronic lung disease, cardiovascular disease, Diabetes mellitus, chronic liver disease, chronic renal failure, asplenia / post spleenectomy, immunosuppressive disease, cochlear implants.

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Typhoid Vaccine

• Killed vaccine given as 2 doses 4 weeks apart, SC.

• Recommended in women following exposure or traveling to endemic areas

• Not much data regarding safety• Live oral vaccine ty21a not

recommended

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