Challenges Facing American Indian Youth: On the Front ...greatest challenges facing American Indian...

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Challenges Facing AmericanIndian Youth: On the

Front Lines With SenatorBen Nighthorse Campbell

Also◆ OJJDP Tribal Youth Program

◆ Cultural Practices in American IndianPrevention Programs

Volume VII • Number 2

From the Administrator

M any American Indian youth and their families face risk factors for de-linquency, including multigenerational problems of alcoholism, depression, and ganginvolvement. This may account, in part, for the fact that tribal youth are dispropor-tionately represented in juvenile arrest data. For example, while American Indianyouth make up just 1 percent of the U.S. population ages 10 to 17, they constitute2 to 3 percent of juveniles arrested for such offenses as larceny-theft and liquor lawviolations.

Character building is crucial to addressing the “Challenges Facing American IndianYouth,” and as U.S. Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell, Chairman of the Senate’sIndian Affairs Committee, reminds us, “Developing character means showing ouryoungsters that they can overcome hardships.” For American Indian youth, SenatorCampbell adds, developing character also means having pride in the traditions andcontributions of their people.

Chryl Andrews reports on the “OJJDP Tribal Youth Program,” established by Con-gress in 1999 to address the rising rate of juvenile crime in tribal communities. Theprogram is a crucial part of the Indian Country Law Enforcement Initiative, inaugu-rated by the U.S. Departments of Justice and the Interior that same year.

Culture has an important role to play in preventing delinquency among AmericanIndian youth. As Ruth Sanchez-Way and Sandie Johnson note in describing “Cul-tural Practices in American Indian Prevention Programs,” cultural identificationmakes adolescents less vulnerable to risk factors for drug use and better able tobenefit from protective factors than children lacking such identification.

This issue of Juvenile Justice provides a compendium of information on preventingand combating delinquency among American Indian youth, including OJJDP’songoing research and demonstration efforts in “Understanding and Responding toYouth Gangs in Indian Country.” Working together, we can advance justice for allAmericans, including the first Americans.

John J. WilsonActing AdministratorOffice of Juvenile Justiceand Delinquency Prevention

Volume VII • Number 2 December 2000

810 Seventh Street NW.Washington, DC 20531

(202) 307–5911

John J. Wilson,Acting Administrator

Editorial Advisory Board

John J. Wilson, Chair

Betty ChemersDeputy Administrator

Discretionary Programs

Acting DirectorResearch and Program Development

Division

Eileen GarryActing Deputy Administrator

State, Local, and Tribal Programs andChild Protection

DirectorInformation Dissemination Unit

Kimberly J. Budnick, DirectorConcentration of Federal

Efforts Program

Donn Davis, Acting DirectorSpecial Emphasis Division

Roberta Dorn, DirectorState Relations andAssistance Division

Ronald Laney, DirectorChild Protection Division

Emily Martin, DirectorTraining and Technical

Assistance Division

Executive EditorEileen M. Garry

Managing EditorCatherine Doyle

Senior EditorEarl E. Appleby, Jr.

Production EditorLeila Wieser

Juvenile Justice (ISSN 1524–6647) ispublished by the Office of JuvenileJustice and Delinquency Prevention(OJJDP) to advance its mandate todisseminate information regardingjuvenile delinquency and preventionprograms (42 U.S.C. 5652).

FEATURESChallenges Facing American Indian Youth: On the Front Lines WithSenator Ben Nighthorse Campbell ..................................................... 3

“The greatest challenges facing American Indian youth are overcoming the obstaclesto living a normal childhood, receiving a sound education, and being equipped tocompete for jobs in the modern economy. We need to encourage and cultivate envi-ronments that facilitate positive growth, making it possible to teach children andyouth that they can accomplish anything they set their minds to.”

OJJDP Tribal Youth Programby Chyrl Andrews ................................................................................ 9

Responding to the increase in violent crimes committed by juveniles in many tribalcommunities, Congress established the Tribal Youth Program in 1999. The program,administered by OJJDP and dedicated to the prevention and control of juvenile crimeand improvement of the juvenile justice system in American Indian communities, in-cludes a range of projects, activities, and funding categories.

Cultural Practices in American Indian Prevention Programsby Ruth Sanchez-Way and Sandie Johnson ................................................... 20

Culture has been defined as the “complex ensemble of emotions, beliefs, values, aspi-rations . . . that together make up behavior.” Research shows that strong culturalidentification makes adolescents less vulnerable to risk factors for drug use and moreable to benefit from protective factors than adolescents who lack this identification.

IN BRIEFJustice Matters

Understanding and Responding to Youth Gangs in Indian Country .................. 31

PublicationsEnlarging the Healing Circle: Ensuring Justice for American

Indian Children ................................................................................................ 32Forging a New Path: A Guide to Starting Boys & Girls Clubs in

Indian Country ................................................................................................. 32Prevention Through Empowerment in a Native American Community ............ 33

OJJDP OnlineAmerican Indian-Focused Web Sites ................................................................... 34

ORDER FORM ....................................................................................................... 35

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention is a component of the Office of JusticePrograms, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, theNational Institute of Justice, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

Points of view or opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarilyrepresent the official position or policies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department of Justice.

3Volume VII • Number 2

Challenges Facing American Indian Youth: On the Front Lines With Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell

T

Challenges FacingAmerican IndianYouth: On the FrontLines With SenatorBen NighthorseCampbell

he journal’s On the Front Lines series features interviews withleading authorities on juvenile justice and related youth issues. Theseexperts have earned their credentials on the front lines in the strugglefor a better tomorrow for today’s youth and their families.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What do you see as thegreatest challenges facing AmericanIndian youth today?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: The greatestchallenges facing American Indian youthare overcoming the obstacles to living anormal childhood, receiving a soundeducation, and being equipped to com-pete for jobs in the modern economy.Obstacles such as violence, drug and al-cohol use, poorly funded schools, dis-crimination, and racism place incredibleburdens on American Indian youth. Ifparents, tribal leaders, and elected offi-cials do not address these problems and

look for real solutions, I am afraid thatthe cycle of neglect in our communitieswill be passed on to the next generation.

Challenges experienced by the parentsand families who reside on reservations intribal communities also have an impacton our youth. Issues such as unemploy-ment, poverty, and lack of housing—notto mention poor housing conditions—create an environment of stress and anxi-ety that does not encourage youngsters tolearn, to play, and to live healthy lives.Ultimately, such conditions lead manyAmerican Indian kids to depression and,tragically, some of these children even

U.S. Senator Ben NighthorseCampbell (CO) is the firstAmerican Indian to chair theIndian Affairs Committee. Aleader in public lands and naturalresources policy, Senator Camp-bell is recognized for the passageof legislation to settle Indian waterrights and protect Colorado’snatural resources. As chair of theIndian Affairs Committee, Sena-tor Campbell has focused on hous-ing, community development, andtrust fund reform. This interviewwas conducted for Juvenile Jus-tice by John J. Wilson, ActingAdministrator, Office of JuvenileJustice and DelinquencyPrevention.

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commit suicide. I get upset when I seechildren who may never have the oppor-tunity to discover their potential or de-velop their skills because of the inadequatefamily structures and environments inwhich they are growing up. Many childrenare nurtured and provided with appropri-ate care by family and relatives. Far toooften, however, more is needed to providethe kind of environment that childrenneed. We need to encourage and cultivateenvironments that facilitate positivegrowth, making it possible to teach chil-dren and youth that they can accomplishanything they set their minds to.

showing our youngsters that they canovercome hardships and become produc-tive members of our society and evenleaders of our Nation. For AmericanIndian youth, developing character alsomeans making them conscious of thepride of American Indian people result-ing from our long traditions and manycontributions to this great Nation.Adults need to take time and tell thestories of our people so that our childrenwill be able to understand the pain expe-rienced and the strength shown to over-come obstacles. What we have shown inrecent years is that when tribes, States,the nonprofit sector, and the FederalGovernment work together, they bringprogress and hope to youngsters. We cankeep these children off the streets andprovide them with constructive alterna-tives to enjoy a healthy, safe, and happyenvironment.

When I was in college in Japan, I wasstruck by the reverence that Japaneseyouth had for their elders and the res-pect accorded to what the elders had tosay. I think we can learn a lot from theJapanese culture, including the need for

As adults, we have a responsibility toprovide children the moral guidance thatputs them on the right path.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: How can adults helpAmerican Indian youth meet thosechallenges?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: As adults, we have aresponsibility not only to provide childrenwith a material standard of living thatallows them to grow but also to providethe kind of moral guidance that puts ouryoung people on the right path. This pathwill lead them to develop healthy habitsthat will carry them throughout theirlives.

Whether we accept or reject the fact thatwe are role models for children, the real-ity is that kids need discipline and a lov-ing, guiding hand to help them throughlife’s ups and downs. It is our responsibil-ity as adults to live our lives without de-pendence on drugs and alcohol, work fora better standard of living for our fami-lies, and be good neighbors and citizens.

I often speak of character being the mostimportant trait to develop, because ithelps guide people through life’s down-turns. Developing character means Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell



adults not only to be responsible but toserve as mentors to young people so thatthey will not have to face their problemsalone.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What role should theFederal Government play in assistingAmerican Indian youth?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: That is an excellentquestion and one that I have grappledwith during my tenure in the U.S. Senateand, more recently, as Chairman of theCommittee on Indian Affairs. I have sub-mitted proposals on healthcare, sub-stance abuse, education, and a host ofother issues that have been enacted intolaw. At the same time, we must face astark but obvious conclusion: the FederalGovernment does not have answers to allthe problems that face American Indianyouth. The government cannot forcepeople to love one another, and it can dolittle to make people act responsibly. Wecan provide incentives for young men tobe responsible fathers and for youngwomen to avoid getting pregnant in thefirst place, but in the end, it comes downto values. I believe that only whenAmerican Indian people return to tradi-tional tribal values will there be funda-mental changes in the kinds ofenvironment we are providing for ouryoung people. I believe the programs thatthe Federal Government currently offersare effective but limited in scope. Theseprograms and funds are not distributed toall tribes or tribal communities. Many ofthese funds are distributed to programsthat are only educational and preventivein nature. A small amount of money ismade available to tribes to establish resi-dential and treatment centers that providea therapeutic environment to combat theincreased rise in alcohol and substanceabuse on reservations—addictions thatoften lead to juvenile delinquency orworse.

I believe that the Federal Governmentshould continue to provide technical assis-tance and professional expertise to tribes tohelp develop effective programs and workwith American Indian youth who are expe-riencing problems. Many of the adults whoreside in our communities are not trainedto deal with such problems; however, theirinvolvement is essential to the successfultreatment of our children.

Only when American Indians return totribal values will there be changes in theenvironment provided our young people.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What changes have youseen in Indian country over the past fewdecades?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: When I was a boy,the violence that is taking place in manyof our communities today was not a prob-lem. It seems to me that our children areat war with each other and themselves.The increase in gangs is a troubling newphenomenon. I read somewhere thatAmerican Indian youth have the strongestrelationship to delinquency and violence.On many reservations, the feeling ofhopelessness among our youth is resultingin a high suicide rate. The complicationsof depression and suicide are well recog-nized problems in American Indian com-munities. The rate of suicide amongAmerican Indian youth between ages 15and 24 was nearly triple the U.S. popula-tion rate for the same age group from1989 to 1991. In 1997, 2 percent of alljuveniles arrested for public drunkennessand driving under the influence wereAmerican Indian, which is nearly doubletheir representation in the general popu-lation. The data also show that far toomany American Indian youth suffer fromobesity and diabetes.

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I am discouraged and often amazed at theincrease in single mothers in our commu-nities and at the age at which our chil-dren are having children. It is time forsomething to be done to prevent thischain of events.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What programs do youbelieve are best suited to preventing de-linquency among American Indianyouth?

the past 4 years, my legislative focus hasbeen to increase economic and job op-portunities in American Indian commu-nities and ensure that the education kidsreceive will enable them to compete forthose jobs.

I was helped by two factors. One was themilitary, as I served in the U.S. Air Forceduring the Korean conflict and learned agreat deal about discipline and being partof something bigger than myself. Thesecond was athletics. I was on the 1964U.S. Olympic Judo Team in Japan, and Ihave found that athletics encourages thekind of competition and teamwork thatmany youth, unfortunately, neverexperience.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What kinds of inter-ventions do you think are most effectivein rehabilitating American Indian juve-nile offenders and combating recidivism?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: As mentioned ear-lier, the most effective intervention tech-niques involve parents and families.Programs need to offer an array of servicesthat address the range of factors that leadto delinquency. We know that delinquentbehavior is not the only problem facingAmerican Indian youth. Such behavioroften stems from problems children areexperiencing in their family environ-ments. Too often, they resort to violentand aggressive behavior as a copingmechanism. Delinquency can sometimesserve as a catalyst for other dangerous ac-tivities that often lead to detention andconfinement. I believe that interventionprograms that offer a therapeutic envi-ronment and incorporate traditionalhealing and cultural awareness are mosteffective in dealing with American In-dian juvenile offenders. Programs need totake a holistic approach that offers indi-vidual, group, and family counseling.Such promising practices can and shouldbe replicated across tribal communitiesbecause of the common challenges thatAmerican Indian youth face.

If more parents and extended familymembers become involved with their kids’lives, we’ll start to see some changes.

SENATOR CAMPBELL: Successful programsare currently in operation across Indiancountry, but not that many. The onesthat are working are focused on healthand educational, vocational, social, andcharacter development. Education andtreatment programs geared at youth de-velopment are needed, especially pro-grams that incorporate the families intothe treatment. For programs to be suc-cessful, we need to unite children withtheir families to work on the family struc-ture and support systems. Let me stressagain that I do not believe more pro-grams will solve all of our problems. I dobelieve that if more parents and ex-tended family members become involvedwith their kids’ lives on a daily basis,we’ll start to see some changes. Childrenand youth benefit from the tools andskills they are taught, such as responsibledecisionmaking, and when these skillsare reinforced in the household, childrenwill adopt them not only as teachings butas principles to live by.

For these reasons, I believe that our fami-lies and private nonprofit organizationsoffer the best hope for preventing delin-quency. For many youth—AmericanIndian and non-American Indian alike—joblessness leads to delinquency. Over



American Indian self-determination andself-governance have offered tribes theopportunity to take the reins.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What has Congressbeen doing to assist American Indianyouth?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: In this session ofCongress, we have been addressing issuesthat affect American Indian youth andjuvenile delinquency, such as education,alcohol and substance abuse, health care(including mental health), job trainingand job creation, and many others.When the tribes are in the saddle, theyare more successful than the FederalGovernment in terms of providing ser-vices to their members because theyknow what is best for their communities.I have sponsored several initiatives thatbuild on the success that Indian tribeshave had designing and implementingtheir own healthcare systems, coordi-nating government resources to addressalcohol and substance abuse, and pro-viding job training, among otheraccomplishments.

For 30 years, American Indian self-determination and self-governance haveoffered tribes the opportunity to take thereins for law enforcement, healthcare,resource management, and other pro-grams and tailor these services to theneeds of their communities. To increaseawareness of fundamental facts about In-dian country and Federal law and poli-cies, the Committee on Indian Affairshas hosted briefings to educate congres-sional, governmental, and tribal staff onissues affecting American Indian youthand other important matters. As we windup the 106th Congress, we will continueto work on these issues and look forwardto getting a running start in the 107thCongress.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: What more would youlike to see Congress do on behalf ofAmerican Indian youth?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: I think the emphasison “more” is misplaced, because all toooften in Washington, DC, the measure of

commitment to an issue is seen in termsof how many taxpayer dollars are spenton it. For some problems, such as build-ing schools, money is a key ingredient toachieving success. Juvenile justice andrelated youth issues are not entirely inthat category, however, and they rely asmuch or more on the involvement ofparents, elders, religious leaders, andteachers.

Having said that, I have made sure thatwhen Congress provides funds to addresssuch matters, American Indians aretreated fairly and equitably. This is par-ticularly true in the areas of education,alcohol and substance abuse programs,and counseling services. Along with over-seeing the U.S. Department of Defenseschools, the United States is responsiblefor one other school system—the Ameri-can Indian school system—and frankly, itis doing an inadequate job. We need toaddress this issue. When we realize thatfacilities need to be built so that our chil-dren can receive the proper educationthey deserve in an environment that fa-cilitates learning, we will have made thefirst step in helping out our youngsters.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: When you were a boy,did you imagine that one day you wouldserve in the U.S. Senate?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: Becoming a U.S.Senator was just about the last thing Iimagined when I was growing up. I expe-rienced what some might call a misspentyouth. Like many youngsters, I was rebel-lious and got into my share of trouble. Iwas fortunate enough, however, to en-counter people and activities that helpedme focus on positive goals. Once I was

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able to harness my youthful exuberance, Iwas amazed at what I could accomplish.That same sense of duty and the drive tobe the best I can still push me to this day.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: Who were some of yourrole models?

SENATOR CAMPBELL: I couldn’t begin tolist all of the people who have had a posi-tive influence on my life. I would notwant to omit anyone who has helped me.

But, certainly, Reuben Black Horse andAustin Two Moons of my Cheyenne fam-ily have guided my adult development.Josh Uchida, my 1964 U.S. Olympic JudoTeam coach, and Paul Maruyama, a team-mate, also inspired me and showed mehow dedication and hard work can forgesuccess. My wife of 32 years, Linda, hasalways been a steadying influence on me.

JUVENILE JUSTICE: Thank you, Senator.


OJJDP Tribal Youth Program

A

OJJDP Tribal YouthProgramby Chyrl Andrews

lthough the violent crime arrest rate for American Indianjuveniles fell 20 percent between its peak year of 1995 and 1998, the 1998rate was still about 20 percent above the average rate of the 1980’s (Snyder,in press). Of particular concern to American Indian tribes1 and the U.S.Department of Justice (DOJ) is the increasing number of violent crimesbeing committed by juveniles in many tribal communities. The number ofAmerican Indian youth in Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP)2 custody hasincreased 50 percent since 1994, and more than 70 percent of the approxi-mately 270 youth in BOP custody on any day are American Indians.

Increasing crime rates on Indian landsare not the only reason for American In-dians’ disproportionate representation inthe BOP population. The overrepresen-tation exists in large part because certaintypes of crimes committed on tribal landsare Federal offenses. As U.S. citizens,American Indians are generally subjectto Federal, State, and local laws. Ontribal lands, however, only Federal andtribal laws apply to members of thetribe, unless Congress provides otherwise.Therefore, many of the offenses commit-ted by youth on tribal lands are handledin Federal courts. Other offenses commit-ted on Indian lands are handled in tribalcourts, and some tribes have “full faithand credit” laws that allow for referrals tothe State system. Youth who commit of-fenses outside tribal lands, by contrast,are more likely to violate State or locallaws and to be tried in State or localcourt and detained in State or localfacilities.

To address the rising rate of juvenilecrime in tribal communities, Congressestablished the Tribal Youth Program(TYP) in 1999,3 appropriating $10 mil-lion in fiscal year (FY) 1999 and $12.5million in FY 2000 for the program. DOJ’sOffice of Juvenile Justice and DelinquencyPrevention (OJJDP)4 administers the pro-gram. OJJDP had assisted American In-dian tribes before 1999 (through thepass-through of Formula Grant Programfunds by the States, discretionary grantfunds, and training and technical assis-tance), but it did not have a programsolely dedicated to the prevention andcontrol of juvenile crime and improve-ment of the juvenile justice system inAmerican Indian communities. TYP,the first such program, includes a rangeof projects, activities, and funding catego-ries. This article provides background in-formation on TYP, an overview of TYPfunding, and descriptions of programsand activities conducted with TYP funds.

Chyrl Andrews, a ProgramSpecialist in OJJDP’s StateRelations and Assistance Division,is responsible for the managementand oversight of Federal grantssupporting a range of programs forjuveniles, including tribal communi-ties’ programs to reduce and pre-vent juvenile crime and improvetheir juvenile justice systems. AsActing Manager of the TribalYouth Program from November1998 to May 2000, Ms. Andrewswas instrumental in developing theprogram. The information onOJJDP’s Tribal Youth Programprovided by its manager, LauraAnsera, is gratefully acknowledged.

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Background: TheIndian Country LawEnforcement InitiativeThe Tribal Youth Program is part of theIndian Country Law Enforcement Initia-tive, a 4-year Federal initiative establishedby DOJ and the U.S. Department of theInterior (DOI) in 1999. The initiative ad-dresses a range of issues affecting law en-forcement and juvenile justice services onIndian reservations. Many of the 1.4 mil-lion American Indians living on or nearIndian lands lack access to even the mostbasic law enforcement services. Juvenilejustice systems in tribal communities arechronically underfunded and lack compre-hensive programs that focus on preventingjuvenile delinquency, providing interven-tion services, and imposing appropriatesanctions. Law enforcement and justicepersonnel in American Indian communi-ties receive insufficient and inadequatetraining. To address such problems, theIndian Country Law Enforcement Initia-tive funds programs that increase theavailability of law enforcement services,improve the administration of criminal andjuvenile justice, and enhance the quality oflife in Indian country.

Program.5 Applicants for TYP fundingreceive information about the initiativethrough solicitations issued by participat-ing bureaus and offices, and additional in-formation is available from the DOJResponse Center at 800–421–6770.6

TYP FundingOf the $12.5 million appropriated in FY2000, the Tribal Youth Program used$1.25 million to support program-relatedresearch, evaluation, and statistical activi-ties; $250,000 to provide training andtechnical assistance to tribal programs;and $7.5 million to award discretionarygrants. Remaining funds were used forother tribal efforts (such as the TYP Men-tal Health Project) and program support.

Grant amounts under the Tribal YouthProgram for FY 2000 varied based on thesize of the total American Indian servicepopulation living on or near a particularreservation (see table 1). OJJDP encour-ages intertribal coalitions, and fundingcovers a 3-year period. Federally recog-nized Indian tribes include Alaskan Na-tive tribal governments.

TYP Programs/ActivitiesPrograms and activities conducted withTYP funds include:

◆ TYP Discretionary Program.

◆ TYP Mental Health Project.

◆ Comprehensive Indian Resources forCommunity and Law Enforcementproject.

◆ Research and evaluation.

◆ TYP Training and TechnicalAssistance Program.

The goals, activities, and funding rangesof each are described in the sections thatfollow.

Many of the 1.4 million American Indiansliving on or near Indian lands lack eventhe most basic law enforcement services.

Under the initiative, Congress appropri-ated $89 million in FY 1999 and nearly$91.5 million in FY 2000 in anticrimeand delinquency prevention grants to beprovided directly to Indian tribes throughthree bureaus and offices in DOJ’s Officeof Justice Programs (OJP) and throughDOJ’s Office of Community OrientedPolicing Services (COPS). Of the initi-ative’s FY 2000 funds, $12.5 million wasappropriated for OJJDP’s Tribal Youth



TYP Discretionary ProgramThe overall purpose of TYP is to supportand enhance tribal efforts to prevent andcontrol delinquency and improve the ju-venile justice system for American Indianyouth. Through the TYP DiscretionaryProgram, applicants are afforded flexibilityto meet the needs of the American Indiancommunity. (See pages 12–13 for high-lights of activities planned by the firstTYP grantees.)

Objectives and activities. The TYP Discre-tionary Program’s four objectives are to:

◆ Reduce, control, and prevent crimeand delinquency committed by andagainst tribal youth. Activities relevantto this objective include assessment ofcommunity needs, identification of riskfactors, efforts to reduce truancy andlower dropout rates, parenting education,antigang education, conflict resolutionservices, child abuse prevention pro-grams, services and treatment for sexoffenders, and strategies to reduce ganginvolvement and lower the rate of gunviolence among American Indian youth.

◆ Provide interventions for court-involved tribal youth. Implementation or

improvement of the following sanctions,interventions, and services help granteesmeet this objective: graduated sanctions,restitution, diversion, home detention, fos-ter and/or shelter care, community service,aftercare services, mental health servicesinterventions (e.g., crisis intervention,screenings, counseling for suicidal behav-ior), and mentoring programs.

◆ Improve tribal juvenile justicesystems. Activities, reforms, and pro-grams relevant to this objective includeindigenous justice strategies (i.e., tribes’particular codes for and methods of prac-ticing justice); training for juvenile courtpersonnel, including judges and prosecu-tors; intake assessments; development orenhancement of tribal juvenile codes;advocacy programs; gender-specificprogramming; probation services; andaftercare programs.

◆ Provide prevention programs thatfocus on alcohol and other drugs. Ac-tivities relevant to this objective includeintensive case management, drug andalcohol education, drug testing, sub-stance abuse counseling for juvenilesand families, services for youth with co-occurring substance abuse disorders,and training for treatment professionals.

Table 1: OJJDP’s Tribal Youth Program: Available Funding

Size of Tribal Service Population On Funding Rangeor Near Reservation1 (for 3-Year Period)

1,000 or fewer residents Up to $75,000

1,001–5,000 residents Up to $100,000

5,001–10,000 residents Up to $250,000

10,001 or more residents Up to $500,000

1 OJJDP bases the amount of funding available to grantees under the Tribal Youth Program ontribal service populations as found in Indian Labor Force Report: Portrait 1997 (Stearns, 1999),which include nonmember American Indians (i.e., spouses of members and other nonmemberswho work and reside in the reservation) within the service population.

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Activities Planned by the First TYP Grantees

by Kay McKinney

When designing the Tribal Youth Program (TYP), the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention(OJJDP) worked closely with representatives from tribal communities and groups of Native youth, requestingtheir suggestions and input on how to structure the program. As part of its efforts, OJJDP met in spring 2000with the new TYP grantees in Albuquerque, NM, to help them get their grants up and running. In turn,OJJDP learned more about the activities that tribes are planning with their TYP grants. Activities planned byspecific grantees are described here.

◆ Yurok Tribe, Eureka, CA. At the suggestion ofAmerican Indians, OJJDP has encouraged tribesapplying for TYP grants to tap into the wisdom oftribal elders as part of their efforts to prevent andcontrol delinquency and improve their juvenilejustice systems. Many grantees are doing so. Forexample, the Yurok Tribe plans to have eldersteach youth about tribal culture and traditions,including the importance of respect. The elderswill explain the significance of family fishingholes (areas passed down from one generation tothe next) and the importance of respecting thefishing holes of other families. In addition, elderswill talk to youth about the old tribal social orderand the important roles and responsibilities of theindividual, the family, and the extended family.They will also explain that many elders grew uppoor but did not turn to alcohol or other drugs.The Yurok Tribe hopes these activities will helpelders, families, and youth create the close rela-tionships needed to combat alcoholism, substanceabuse, domestic violence, child abuse, and crimi-nal activity.

◆ Red Lake Band Chippewa Indians, Red Lake,MN. This tribe will ask community elders toidentify beliefs and traditions that need to bepassed on to tribal youth and to help youth iden-tify with and be proud of their culture. These ac-tivities, tribal members believe, will begin toaddress the confusion and anger that youngpeople in their community often feel as theystruggle to live in two diverse cultures.

◆ Navajo Nation, headquartered in WindowRock, AZ. Several TYP grantees, including theNavajo Nation (which extends through three

States and is the largest Indian reservation in theUnited States), are developing programs that in-corporate tribes’ cultural values. The NavajoNation’s program will combine education,therapy, and tradition to help reduce the recidi-vism rate for court-involved youth. The educa-tion segment of the program will addresscommunication skills, substance abuse, juvenilecrime and consequences, and the impact ofcrime on victims and the community. The pro-gram will use traditional sweat lodges (spiritualpurification ceremonies) and talking circles(similar to group therapy) to help families andyouth focus on family dynamics, crime, substanceabuse, and Navajo culture and tradition.

◆ Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Cherokee,NC. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indiansplans to use cultural education programs to ad-dress alcohol and drug abuse and illegal weaponuse among youth in the tribe. One of these pro-grams, the Cherokee Challenge Seven Clans In-tervention Program, will use learning circles ledby elders to teach court-involved youth aboutclan traditions. Program activities will be gearedaround each clan’s attributes. For example, tohelp youth identify with the Wolf Clan (knownas hunters), the program will teach youth ar-chery. Activities related to the Wild Potato Clan(known as gatherers) will include identifyingplants. Tribal leaders believe that teaching youthabout their Indian heritage will improve theirself-esteem and help them avoid violence anddrug abuse.

(continued on page 13)



Even though the activities described above represent only a sample of those planned by the 34 tribal communi-ties that received the first TYP grants, they illustrate the types of culturally relevant projects being developed bytribes. Congress and the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) directed the Office of Tribal Justice, the Office of Jus-tice Programs, and OJJDP to ensure widespread diversity. DOJ’s consultation meetings with Indian tribes andOJJDP’s focus group underscore DOJ’s commitment to helping Indian tribes address Native youth issues effec-tively. TYP exemplifies what can be accomplished through mutual respect and understanding when the FederalGovernment and tribal governments work together to prevent youth violence and substance abuse.

◆ Native Village of St. Michael, Western Alaska.Several grantees, especially those in Alaska, aredeveloping programs to help tribal youth andfamilies cope with their communities’ geographicisolation. The Native Village of St. Michael, forexample, is a small and remote Yupik (Eskimo)village in western Alaska whose harsh physicalenvironment and isolation affect many age groupsin the community. These factors often lead toboredom, low self-esteem, drug and alcoholabuse, depression, and suicide. The TYP grantwill enable the village to provide cultural activi-ties (e.g., making artifacts with beads and learn-ing traditional Yupik dances, songs, and games),mental health and counseling services for youthand their families, and family strengthening, con-flict resolution, and child abuse preventionclasses.

Funding. In FY 1999, 34 tribal communi-ties in 14 States received OJJDP grantstotaling almost $8 million under the TYPDiscretionary Program to prevent andcontrol youth violence and substanceabuse in tribal communities (see page 16for a list of grantees). Awarded through acompetitive review process, grants rangedfrom $64,875 to $500,000, depending onthe size of the American Indian servicepopulation, as reported in Indian LaborForce Report: Portrait 1997 (Stearns,1999).

TYP Mental Health ProjectBackground: Federal Mental Healthand Community Safety Initiative. TYP’sMental Health Project is part of the

Mental Health and Community SafetyInitiative for American Indian/AlaskaNative (AI/AN) Children, Youth, andFamilies, a Federal initiative announcedJune 7, 1999, at the White House Con-ference on Mental Health and developedby DOJ,7 DOI,8 and the U.S. Depart-ments of Education (ED)9 and Healthand Human Services (HHS).10 TheWhite House Domestic Policy Councilinitiated coordination of this effort,which helps tribes develop innovativestrategies focusing on the mental health,behavioral, substance abuse, and safetyneeds of Native youth, their families, andtheir communities through a coordinatedFederal process.

The Federal Mental Health and Commu-nity Safety Initiative has several goals. It

◆ Bristol Bay Native Association, Dillingham,AK. Bristol Bay, a nonprofit tribal organizationthat represents villages scattered throughoutsouthwest Alaska, plans to use its TYP grant tostrengthen law enforcement and the judicial pro-cess in four villages. Because of the geographicspread of the communities, the State providesonly minimal law enforcement and court services.As a result, Bristol Bay has no mechanism forholding juvenile offenders accountable for theiractions or imposing consequences. It will use itsTYP grant to establish tribal juvenile courts inthe four villages. Planned activities include assess-ing and prioritizing juvenile court needs, traininga judge and court clerk for each village, draftingand implementing village juvenile codes, holdinghearings on juvenile matters, and collecting dataon juvenile delinquency.

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is dedicated to improving mental health,education, and substance abuse servicesfor tribal youth and to supporting juve-nile delinquency prevention and inter-vention by creating and implementingculturally sensitive programs. The initia-tive helps tribes address the mentalhealth and related needs of tribal youthand their families in various communitysettings (e.g., at home, in school, withinthe juvenile justice system). Grantees, forexample, may use funding to design andimplement healthcare treatment pro-grams and education programs that focuson preventing violence. As shown intable 2, many Federal agencies providedgrant funding for the initiative.11 Over a3-year period, participating Federal agen-cies will work together to achieve theinitiative’s goals by allocating availablegrant funds and other resources to eligibleIndian tribes and tribal organizations.

In 1999, as part of the Federal initiative,OJJDP designated $1 million to estab-lish the TYP Mental Health Project, theoverall goal of which is to provide men-tal health diagnosis and treatment ser-vices for American Indian youth intribal and/or State juvenile justice sys-tems. Its objectives, activities, and fund-ing are described in the sections thatfollow.

Objectives and activities. Although thefour objectives of the TYP MentalHealth Project are the same as those ofthe TYP Discretionary Program, activi-ties under each have a specific mentalhealth and juvenile justice focus. TheTYP Mental Health Project’s four objec-tives are to:

◆ Reduce, control, and prevent crimeand delinquency committed by andagainst American Indian youth.Activities relevant to this objective in-clude the development and/or enhance-ment of diagnostic, treatment, andprevention instruments; psychologicaland psychiatric evaluation; counselingfor conduct disorder and posttraumaticstress disorder; delinquency preventionprograms; development of conflict resolu-tion skills; treatment and services for sexoffenders; and family support services.

◆ Provide interventions for court-involved tribal youth. Activities thatrelate to this objective include imposingappropriate sanctions; providing mentalhealth interventions (e.g., crisis inter-vention; mental health screenings; coun-seling for suicidal behavior, depression,and anxiety; and discharge planning);placing youth in day treatment programs,therapeutic group homes/foster care, oracute inpatient or residential psychiatriccare facilities; and improving aftercareprogramming and services.

◆ Improve tribal juvenile justicesystems. The following activities relateto this objective: indigenous justice strat-egies, training for juvenile justice profes-sionals, enhanced intake assessments(including mental health screenings),gender-specific mental health program-ming, and aftercare programs.

◆ Provide prevention programs thatfocus on alcohol and other drugs.Activities relevant to this objective in-clude intensive case management, ser-vices for co-occuring mental health and

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substance abuse disorders, coordinationof existing mental health and substanceabuse programs for juvenile offenders,training for mental health and substanceabuse professionals, drug testing, andcounseling for tribal youth and theirfamilies.

The activities and services describedabove may be implemented or providedto youth at any stage of the juvenile jus-tice system process, including arrest,intake, adjudication, detention, con-finement in a secure correctional facility,probation, and community-basedtreatment.

Funding. The $1 million available in FY2000 for the TYP Mental Health Projectwill be awarded through a competitiveprocess. (See table 3 on page 17 for avail-able funding ranges.) OJJDP encouragesintertribal coalitions. Funding is for a 3-year period.

Comprehensive IndianResources for Community andLaw Enforcement ProjectObjectives and activities. The Compre-hensive Indian Resources for Communityand Law Enforcement (CIRCLE) projectis a Federal initiative designed to em-power tribal communities to fight crime,violence, and substance abuse more ef-fectively and help them address localproblems comprehensively through effec-tive planning and appropriate funding.Like other DOJ-funded comprehensivecommunity initiatives, such as Weed andSeed and Tribal Strategies Against Vio-lence, the CIRCLE project provides anopportunity for DOJ to work with Fed-eral agencies and private partners to de-velop resources needed to create safe andhealthy tribal communities.

The CIRCLE project is based on two keyprinciples. First, because the FederalGovernment cannot impose solutionsfrom the top down that effectively andcompletely address the problems of tribal

Table 2: FY 2000 Funding for the Mental Health andCommunity Safety Initiative for American Indian/AlaskaNative (AI/AN) Children, Youth, and Families

Federal Agency/Office Funding Amount(Sponsoring U.S. Department)

Office of Juvenile Justice andDelinquency Prevention (DOJ) $1,000,000

Community OrientedPolicing Services (DOJ) $1,500,000

Indian Health Service (HHS) $1,130,000

Substance Abuse and Mental HealthServices Administration (HHS) $450,000

Office of Elementary and SecondaryEducation, Safe andDrug-Free Schools Program (ED) $50,000

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communities, such communities shouldtake the lead, with assistance from theFederal Government, in developing andimplementing efforts to control crime,violence, and drug abuse. Second, prob-lems addressed by the CIRCLE projectrequire a comprehensive approach—thatis, one that incorporates coordinated,multidisciplinary efforts. The CIRCLEproject complements and is supported bythe Indian Country Law EnforcementInitiative (discussed on page 10) andserves three tribes: Northern CheyenneTribe (Lame Deer, MT); Oglala SiouxTribe (Pine Ridge, SD), and Pueblo ofZuni (Zuni, NM).

Funding. Through the CIRCLE project,participating tribes receive special con-sideration for technical assistance andtraining related to strategy developmentand implementation. They are also eli-gible to apply for funding for law enforce-ment, tribal courts, detention facilities,and youth programs. Several DOJ agen-cies work together to make technical as-sistance and funding available to thiscomprehensive program. Partner agen-cies include the Office of the AttorneyGeneral, the Office of Tribal Justice,OJP, and COPS. The U.S. Attorneyplays a role in the CIRCLE project, andthe Federal Bureau of Investigationand DOI’s Bureau of Indian Affairs also

Tribal Youth Program Grantees

AlaskaBristol Bay Native Association,

DillinghamEastern Aleutian Tribes, Inc.,

AnchorageNative Village of St. Michael,

St. Michael

ArizonaAK–CHIN Indian Community,

MaricopaThe Hopi Tribe, KykotsmoviHualapai Tribe, Peach SpringsNavajo Nation, Window Rock

CaliforniaBig Valley Rancheria, LakeportFort Mojave Indian Tribe, NeedlesSanta Ysabel Band of Diegueno

Indians, Santa YsabelToiyabe Indian Health Project,

Inc., BishopTrinidad Rancheria, TrinidadYurok Tribe, Eureka

MichiganGrand Traverse Band of

Ottawa and ChippewaIndians, Suttons Bay

Hannahville IndianCommunity, Wilson

MinnesotaMille Lacs Band of Ojibwe

Indians, OnamiaRed Lake Band of Chippewa

Indians, Red Lake

NebraskaPonca Tribe of Nebraska,

LincolnWinnebago Tribe of Nebraska,

Winnebago

NevadaLovelock Paiute Tribe, Lovelock

New MexicoPueblo of AcomaPueblo of JemezPueblo of Taos

North CarolinaEastern Band of Cherokee

Indians, Cherokee

OklahomaIowa Tribe of Oklahoma,

PerkinsKaw Nation, Kaw City

South DakotaYankton Sioux Tribe, Marty

WashingtonLower Elwha Klallam Tribe,

Port AngelesNisqually Indian Tribe, OlympiaPuyallup Tribe of Indians

Administration, TacomaShoalwater Bay Indian Tribe,

Tokeland

WisconsinLa Courte Oreilles Band of Lake

Superior Chippewa, HaywardStockbridge-Munsee Community,

Bowler

WyomingEastern Shoshone Tribe of the

East River, Fort Washakie



contribute through the Indian CountryLaw Enforcement Initiative.

TYP Research and EvaluationGuiding principles. Three basic prin-ciples for conducting research in Indiancountry have emerged from OJJDP’s nu-merous meetings and focus groups withIndian practitioners and researchers.12

Each is described below.

◆ Practicality and local relevance.Research should provide practical resultsthat are useful to the parties who arethe focus of the research. Too often,researchers give little back to the peopleand communities they study.

◆ Community involvement. Researchprojects should include local communitymembers in decisionmaking and projectimplementation. Projects that relate toAmerican Indians should include theguidance of local communities andprovide opportunities for communitymembers to develop their research skills.

◆ Cultural sensitivity. Researchersmust understand and be sensitive to localcustoms, traditions, values, and history.Researchers should officially recognizethe principle of tribal sovereignty andthe government-to-government

relationship embodied in Federal grantsto conduct research in Indian country.

Research projects. The following areexamples of TYP research projects andevaluations.

◆ Evaluation facilitation for the TribalYouth Program. The Michigan PublicHealth Institute was selected as the TYPevaluation facilitator in July 2000 toguide five TYP sites through a participa-tory evaluation of their programs. Partici-patory evaluations include a high level ofinvolvement and direction by programstakeholders (e.g., program personnel,related agency personnel, communityresidents, program participants). Partici-pating sites will assemble a ProgramAssessment Team (PAT) with localstakeholders, and the evaluation facilita-tor will provide training and technical as-sistance to PAT’s on how to conduct aprogram evaluation that covers bothimplementation and outcomes. PAT’s, inturn, will develop evaluation questions,data collection procedures, analysis plans,and evaluation reports and will collectand analyze data with support from theevaluation facilitator.

◆ CIRCLE project evaluation. DuringFY’s 1999 and 2000, OJJDP transferred a

Table 3: The Tribal Youth Program Mental HealthProject: Available Funding

Size of Total Tribal Service Funding RangePopulation On or Near Reservation1 (for 3-Year Period)

1,000 or fewer residents Up to $75,000

1001–5,000 residents Up to $100,000

5,001–10,000 residents Up to $200,000

10,001 or more residents Up to $300,000

1 OJJDP bases the amount of funding available to grantees under the Tribal Youth Program ontribal service populations found in Indian Labor Force Report: Portrait 1997 (Stearns, 1999).

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total of $100,000 to the National Insti-tute of Justice (NIJ) for an evaluation ofthe CIRCLE project. The evaluation usesa participatory design and provides sitepersonnel and stakeholders many oppor-tunities for involvement. NIJ released asolicitation for the evaluation in April2000. The evaluation award was made inSeptember 2000 to the Harvard Projecton American Indian Development atHarvard University’s John F. KennedySchool of Government.

◆ Field-initiated research. Field-initiated research allows researchers inthe field—rather than Federal decision-makers in Washington, DC—to deter-mine which areas and topics are mostimportant to examine. Within thisframework, OJJDP sometimes specifiesgeneral areas of focus. In FY 1999, forexample, OJJDP released a broad solicita-tion for research on American Indianjuvenile justice and delinquency preven-tion issues. OJJDP made three awards—two to State universities and one to atribal college. Research under thesegrants includes analyses of reservation-based juvenile justice systems, develop-ment and demonstration of culturallyappropriate juvenile justice approaches,and a study of American Indian youthgangs.13 FY 2000 funds will support field-initiated research in three focal areas:child abuse/neglect, substance abuse, andindigenous juvenile justice approaches.

◆ Longitudinal Study of Tribal YouthRisk and Resiliency. The purpose of thisproject, currently under development, isto conduct a longitudinal study of youthdevelopment and delinquency that ex-amines risk and protective factors withinthe unique cultural and historical con-text of American Indian youth. Throughspecial attention to cultural and histori-cal factors, this study will greatly en-hance the current understanding ofindividual, family, community, peer, andschool factors that influence American

Indian delinquency and resiliency. Thefirst 2 years of the project will be dedi-cated to a feasibility study that willinclude selection of sites and coordina-tion with tribes to develop and test cul-turally appropriate research methods andmeasures. Although OJJDP will serve asthe lead agency throughout this project,sponsorships will be sought from addi-tional agencies to help support imple-mentation of the project beyond the first2 years. OJJDP anticipates that the studywill continue for 5 years beyond thefeasibility study.

TYP Training and TechnicalAssistance ProgramIn response to the rise in juvenile crime,violence, and victimization in tribalcommunities, OJJDP funded four Indiantribes between FY’s 1992 and 1995 to de-velop culturally relevant community-based programs to address the needs ofyoung American Indian offenders andtheir families. During that time, OJJDPalso funded a technical assistance pro-gram to support Indian tribes as they de-sign, develop, and implement suchprograms. The success of this early initia-tive led OJJDP to expand its training andtechnical assistance. In FY 1996, OJJDPfunded a 3-year training and technicalassistance program to improve tribal gov-ernments’ responses to youth crime, vio-lence, and victimization.

In FY 1997, OJJDP awarded AmericanIndian Development Associates (AIDA)a 3-year cooperative agreement to pro-vide training and technical assistance toAmerican Indian and Alaskan Nativegovernments to develop or enhance theirjuvenile justice systems. Under the agree-ment, AIDA developed a comprehensiveapproach to juvenile delinquency,violence, and victimization in tribalcommunities.



7. The following DOJ components were involvedin developing this initiative: the Office of theAttorney General, the Office of Tribal Justice,COPS, and OJP. Within OJP, the following of-fices are involved in coordinating and implement-ing the initiative: OJJDP, the American Indianand Alaska Native Affairs Office, the CorrectionsProgram Office, and the Office of the AssistantAttorney General.

8. DOI is involved in developing and providingtechnical assistance for the initiative through theBureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). BIA componentsthat are involved in the initiative include the Of-fice of Indian Education Programs, the Office ofEconomic Development, the Office of SubstanceAbuse Prevention, and the Office of TribalServices.

9. The Education office involved in developingand providing grant funds for the initiative is theOffice of Elementary and Secondary Education,Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program.

10. HHS agencies involved in developing thisinitiative include the Indian Health Service (IHS)and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Ser-vices Administration (SAMHSA). Componentswithin SAMHSA that are involved in the initia-tive include the Center for Mental Health Ser-vices; the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention;and the Center for Substance Abuse Treatment.

11. Agencies and offices include the following:within DOJ, COPS and OJJDP; within HHS, IHSand SAMHSA; and within ED, the Office ofElementary and Secondary Education, Safe andDrug-Free Schools Program.

12. Central among these meetings was the 1998Strategic Planning Meeting on Crime and JusticeResearch sponsored by OJJDP and the NationalInstitute of Justice held in Portland, OR.

13. For more information on American Indianyouth gangs, refer to “Understanding and Re-sponding to Youth Gangs in Indian Country” onpage 31 of this issue of Juvenile Justice.

ReferencesSnyder, H.N. In press. Juvenile Arrests by Race1998. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Depart-ment of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Officeof Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Stearns, Robert. 1999. Indian Labor Force Report:Portrait 1997. Washington, DC: Bureau of IndianAffairs Statistics Office.

ConclusionThrough various programs and activitiesfunded by OJJDP’s Tribal Youth Program,tribes today have the opportunity to exer-cise creativity and adhere to cultural tradi-tions when developing and implementingprograms for tribal youth. As discussed inthis article, tribes developed a range ofdiscretionary and research/evaluation pro-grams during the first year of the TribalYouth Program. Continued funding willallow the program to evolve and bettermeet the needs of American Indian youthby more effectively preventing juv-enile delinquency and enhancing thequality of tribal juvenile justice systems.

Notes1. As used throughout this issue of Juvenile Justiceand consistent with the Consolidated Appropria-tions Act of 2000, November 17, 1999 (Pub. L.106–113), the term “American Indian” refers tomembers of any federally recognized Indian tribe,including Alaskan Native tribal governments. Theterm “Indian tribe” has the meaning given theterm in section 102 of the Federally RecognizedIndian Tribe List Act of 1994 (25 U.S.C. § 479a):any Indian or Alaskan Native tribe, band, nationor pueblo, village or community that the Secretaryof the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) ac-knowledges to exist as an Indian tribe.

2. BOP is responsible for the custody and care ofFederal offenders—both those sentenced to im-prisonment for Federal crimes and those detainedpending trial in Federal court.

3. TYP was created under Pub. L. 106–113(November 17, 1999).

4. OJJDP was established by Congress under theJuvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention(JJDP) Act of 1974 (Pub. L. 93–415, 42 U.S.C.§ 5601 et seq.) to help communities and Statesprevent and control delinquency and improvetheir juvenile justice systems.

5. Initiative funds are also appropriated to thefollowing offices/agencies for related areas ofinvolvement: COPS (police officers, training andequipment); the Corrections Program Office(construction of detention facilities); and theBureau of Justice Assistance (tribal courts).

6. Eligible applicants are federally recognizedtribes and those corporations representing AlaskanNative villages.

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Cultural Practices inAmerican IndianPrevention Programsby Ruth Sanchez-Way and Sandie Johnson

he use of American Indian cultural activities in substance abuseprevention programs is part of the indigenous cultural renaissance that hasbeen under way in tribal communities since the late 1960’s. AmericanIndians’ pride in their heritage has been growing, as has their awareness oftheir unique position as nations within a nation (Beauvais, 1992).

T

Ruth Sanchez-Way, Ph.D., isActing Director of the Center forSubstance Abuse Prevention(CSAP). Sandie Johnson, M.A.,C.A.C., is a project officer inCSAP’s Division of State andCommunity Systems Develop-ment. CSAP, which is part of theSubstance Abuse and MentalHealth Services Administration,seeks to provide national leadershipin the Federal effort to preventalcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugproblems.

American Indians are reviving tradi-tional ceremonies and practices andare seeking increased political self-determination and fiscal autonomy(Frank, Moore, and Ames, 2000). Thecultural revival among indigenouspeoples emphasizes the spiritual aspect oftheir traditions, “with its emphasis onindividual spirit power” (Jilek-Aall,1981:146), and sobriety in tribal lands.

The strategy of applying a cultural ap-proach to social problems began in theearly 1970’s, when American Indian sub-stance abuse treatment programs beganinviting community elders to participatein the healing of their clients. The eldersbrought with them a holistic approachthat involved cultural practices such asparticipating in sweatlodge ceremoniesand smudging with sweetgrass or sage.1

In the 1980’s, experts reasoned that if acultural approach works in treatment,then perhaps applying this approach ear-lier might prevent American Indian

youth from drinking alcohol and goingthrough the hardships of alcohol anddrug abuse. Leaders began using culturalactivities in substance abuse preventionprograms (see sidebar, page 21).

Cultural IdentificationCulture has been defined as the “com-plex ensemble of emotions, beliefs, val-ues, aspirations . . . that together makeup behavior” (Fabrega, 1992:561). Cul-ture is transmitted through language andis constantly changing. It includes thestories, songs, art, and literature of apeople. In essence, it is the framework inwhich childhood socialization takes place(Beauvais, 1992). Research shows thatstrong cultural identification makes ado-lescents less vulnerable to risk factors fordrug use and more able to benefit fromprotective factors than adolescents wholack this identification (Zickler, 1999).Although the studies Zickler refers towere conducted with Puerto Rican,


Cultural Practices in American Indian Prevention Programs

African American, and Asian popula-tions, risk and protective factors amongyouth appear to be universal regardless ofethnicity or gender (Fisher, Storck, andBacon, 1999).

Although the effect of culture on sub-stance use is not direct, culture “acts incombination with family, personality, orpeer influences” (Zickler, 1999:8).Eugene Oetting and Fred Beauvais(1989), respected researchers on Ameri-can Indian youth, agree that the effect of

culture on substance use appears to beindirect. They believe that culture actsthrough the family, community, peer clus-ters, and ceremonies and rituals thattransmit its underlying spiritual values.

Although cultural affiliation and culturalidentification have been studied for manyyears, Trimble and Beauvais (in press)point out that research on the link be-tween cultural identification and lowerlevels of drug and alcohol use is “ex-tremely meager, not only for Indian

Cultural Interventions in American IndianPrevention Programs

Listed below are some cultural interventions that American Indian preventionprograms have used. All the activities assume the participation of elders andinclude the transmission of tribal history, values, and beliefs. Also, music,drumming, and singing are integral parts of most of these activities.

Ceremonies and Rituals

◆ Participating in sweatlodgeceremonies.

◆ Smudging.

◆ Attending social dances.

◆ Learning sacred dances.

◆ Attending a Sundance.

◆ Fasting.

◆ Going on a vision quest.

◆ Paying attention to dreams.

◆ Attending powwows and othersober community activities.

◆ Storytelling and listening to stories.

◆ Participating in a Talking Circle.

Tribal Crafts

◆ Making traditional attire forpowwows and other ceremonies.

◆ Tanning hides.

◆ Making ribbon shirts.

◆ Sewing quilts.

◆ Learning the native language.

◆ Cooking traditional foods.

◆ Picking and drying herbs.

◆ Making jewelry and moccasins.

◆ Making cradle boards.

Traditional Forms of Living

◆ Hunting.

◆ Fishing.

◆ Shepherding.

◆ Participating in tribal sports.

◆ Horsemanship.

◆ Camping and participating insurvival retreats.

◆ Picking berries and harvesting crops.

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youth, but also for all other minoritypopulations.” This may be because thelink between cultural identification andreduced alcohol and drug use is indirectand because researchers use differentmeasures of cultural identification.

Nevertheless, powerful testimony fromindividual American Indians is in accor-dance with a 1989 youth survey reportingthat American Indian adolescents whoidentify with Indian culture are less likelyto be involved in alcohol use than thosewho lack this sense of identity (Oettingand Beauvais, 1989). Moran and Reaman(in press) cite a prevention program,Project Charlie (Chemical Abuse Reso-lution Lies in Education), that found asignificant correlation between increasedaffiliation with one’s culture and de-creased alcohol and drug use. This pro-ject was implemented in the 1980’s inRhode Island by the Narraganset tribe.

Acculturation is the process by which amember of an ethnic minority assimilatesto the majority culture (Zimmerman etal., 1998). Acculturation stress has beencited as a factor in substance abuse amongAmerican Indians (Jilek-Aall, 1981;Fisher, Storck, and Bacon, 1999); how-ever, Oetting and Beauvais (1991) havenot found acculturation stress to be anadequate explanatory factor for substanceuse by American Indian adolescents.

Cultural identification is multidimen-sional rather than a simple linear matterof acculturation or nonacculturation. Animportant dimension to cultural identifi-cation is having a stake in society. Afamily that speaks an Indian languageand engages in tribal activities developsa stronger stake in American Indian

culture than a family that does not. Peo-ple can have college degrees and jobs offthe reservation but still participate intribal activities and have a high stake inAmerican Indian society.

In contrast, a person can live on a reser-vation and not have much stake in In-dian culture. Some tribal people identifymore strongly with the majority culture,but strong identification with non-Indianculture has not been found to be relatedeither positively or negatively to theprevalence of alcohol use and abuse. In-stead, having a high stake in both thetraditional and the majority cultures ap-pears to be related to decreased alcoholuse (Oetting and Beauvais, 1989). Incontrast, tribal peoples who live on themargins of both the traditional and themajority cultures are at the highest riskfor substance abuse (May, 1986). Thesefindings support the theory that peopleneed a strong sense of group identifica-tion to maintain a state of well-being(Moran and Reaman, in press).

The Center for Substance Abuse Preven-tion (CSAP) has funded more than 400demonstration grant programs for high-risk youth in almost every State and Pa-cific jurisdiction, Puerto Rico, and theU.S. Virgin Islands, reaching an esti-mated 50,000–100,000 youth annually.2

A CSAP demonstration grant that em-phasized building a bicultural identity asa prevention strategy was implementedin 1995–96. The project sought to in-crease emotional strength and self-esteem and decrease substance use byusing a storytelling intervention thatincorporated cultural symbols (Nelson,1999). The study population was a groupof more than 200 middle school studentswho resided on a rural reservation in theSouthwest. Storytelling was used as a wayof helping young people deal with the“social, cultural, and emotional factorsfaced in growing up amidst poverty in aminority community” (Nelson, 1999:1).

American Indian adolescents who identifywith Indian culture are less likely to beinvolved in alcohol use.



Effective PreventionPrograms

General PrinciplesA cross-site evaluation of CSAP’s overallsubstance abuse prevention programsidentified several elements common tosuccessful programs (Sanchez-Way,2000). Effective programs employ a vari-ety of approaches and interventions in avariety of settings. A common element ofsuccessful programs is that they fostercaring, supportive relationships with oneor more adults. Successful programs cre-ate opportunities for youth to developfeelings of self-efficacy and competence.

Youth in the general population whohave the following characteristics are lesslikely to use substances such as drugs oralcohol:

◆ Strong relationships within the familyand between parents/caregivers andchildren.

◆ Family supervision and discipline.

◆ Clear positive standards for behavior.

◆ Family and peer norms that discour-age alcohol and drug use.

◆ Academic achievement.

The program’s 27-lesson curriculum cov-ered brain physiology, decisionmakingskills, and multicultural stories. The cur-riculum enhanced the protective factorof self-identity as an American Indianthrough storytelling.

At the end of the academic year, resultsshowed that problem-solving skills, posi-tive self concept, and unfavorable atti-tudes toward drugs had increased,whereas use of inhalants, alcohol, andmarijuana had decreased. These resultswere statistically significant. The studyfound that as exposure to the curriculumincreased over the course of the schoolyear, the number of drugs the studentsused in the preceding month decreased.The decrease in alcohol use by maleAmerican Indians in middle school wasespecially significant. Nelson stressed theimportance of exposing the youth to highdosages (28 hours or more) of this cul-tural intervention strategy.

Because storytelling is inherent to Am-erican Indian cultures, implementing itas a prevention strategy is congruentwith the world view of these cultures.Cross, who recommends storytelling as afamily strategy, says that “in passing onthe stories of our lives, we pass on skillsto our children, and we parent for resil-iency” (Cross, 1998:152).

Resilience has been defined as “compe-tence despite exposure to significantstressors” (Glantz and Johnson, 1999:7).However, resilience, like cultural identi-fication, does not directly influence theprevalence of alcohol use. It has an effectonly when inadequate handling of a lifecrisis might lead to problems that in-crease the potential for drug use. In otherwords, resilience only comes into play attimes of stress and crises (Beauvais andOetting, 1999).

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◆ A stable community environmentthat sanctions norms, values, and policiesthat control access to alcohol and drugs.

◆ Meaningful opportunities for childrento contribute to their community.

The Culture-Based ApproachDifferences by tribal group, culture, degreeof Indian ancestry, and reservation/urbanresidency make it impossible to prescribe ageneral prevention approach for all Am-erican Indian youth (Moran and Reaman,in press), even if that were desirable. Suc-cessful approaches, however, will incorpo-rate ethnic and cultural components intoprevention programs to promote the char-acteristics stated above.

Successful prevention efforts in tribalcommunities build bicultural competencein youth and operate simultaneously onseveral levels. These multilevel interven-tions are created and implemented by thecommunity, not developed outside theculture. The most important task thatfunding agencies can undertake is to helpcommunities develop a plan and actionsteps to implement their ideas, keeping inmind both the culture and the preventionprinciples that have proven effective.

Components of a MultilevelCultural InterventionFamily. The buffering effects of protec-tive factors such as family and social sup-port have been known for many years.Strong families provide a secure andstable environment in which a youth hasa chance to learn competencies, develop

strengths, and incorporate cultural norms(Beauvais and Oetting, 1999).

A recent study of 404 children and ado-lescents, which included 112 AmericanIndian youth, found that a negative con-cept of self and family led to significantlypoorer outcomes for both American In-dian and Caucasian youth (Fisher,Storck, and Bacon, 1999). CSAP be-lieves that the first and most potent av-enue for preventing substance use isthrough the family (Sanchez-Way,2000). One of the strengths of AmericanIndian culture is a strong belief in familyrelationships and the extended family(Oetting and Beauvais, 1989). In addi-tion, the ceremony of “making relatives”provides the opportunity to ensure anextended family.3 Successful preventionprograms are built on the foundation ofthe family and transmit the cultural val-ues held by the family. According toBeauvais and Oetting (1999:104):

When the family has a high level ofcultural identification, . . . [it] isfunctioning in a cultural contextwhere its members are meeting cul-tural demands successfully andwhere its members are beingstrongly reinforced by that culturein ways that are meaningful to fam-ily members; the family is successfulin that culture.

Therefore, Indian families, not schools,should be the primary focus of preven-tion (Beauvais, in press).

Peers. Cultural approaches strive to de-velop nonusing peer groups. Early social-ization is linked to the family and school,but in the teen years, peers become amore dominant factor in the lives of mostyoung people. In many cases, the familyis unavailable or not functioning in ahealthy way, and the peer cluster be-comes the most important factor for ayouth. On the other hand, in some tribalcultures, the family remains more

One of the strengths of American Indianculture is a strong belief in familyrelationships and the extended family.



Spirituality. The cultural approach im-plies awareness of underlying spiritualprinciples. The role of religion and spiri-tuality in lowering the substance abuserates of African American youth hasbeen well-documented (see, e.g., Fang etal., 1996; Gruber, DiClemente, andAnderson, 1996; Heath et al., 1999).Kumpfer (1999) points out that religiousfaith or affiliation is an important indi-vidual protective factor among the gen-eral population and that spiritualityincludes life purpose. Having a life pur-pose has been found to be predictive ofpositive life adaptation (Kumpfer, 1999).

In the world view of the Indian culture,everything has a purpose, including trees,animals, and rocks. One of life’s most im-portant developmental tasks is discover-ing one’s own life purpose, and AmericanIndian culture has many culturally sanc-tioned practices, such as the vision quest,for accomplishing this.5

Communities. Community healing re-quires prevention. Some tribal communi-ties now feel so overwhelmed by theconsequences of abusive alcohol use thatthey are calling for abstinence among allindividuals, especially tribal council mem-bers (Mail and Johnson, 1993). AmericanIndian psychologists Duran and Duran(1995) believe that primary preventioncannot be successful if a community is in-undated by alcohol and substance abuse.Other American Indian professionalsthink that communitywide prevention isthe only sensible way to proceed. In fact,some definitions of primary preventionconsider the community to be the properbasis for all prevention efforts. May(1995a:294) defines primary prevention as

Elders and medicine men and women areindispensable to youth relearning Indiancultural values.

significant than peers because of the vastdistances between homes and the lack oftransportation, which results in the in-ability of peers to spend time together(Dalla and Gamble, 1998).

In many cases, peers initiate youth intoalcohol abuse and shape their attitudestoward drinking behavior. The peergroup determines where and when alco-hol will be consumed. Prevention, there-fore, must target high-risk peer clusters offriends (May, 1995b). The concept ofpeer clusters is a relatively new one.Clusters are voluntary friendship groupsin which one gains an identity. Althoughschool attendance gives a youth a largerpeer group, its influence is weaker andmore dispersed than that of a peer clus-ter. Those designing primary preventionprograms should consider interveningwith peer clusters rather than with indi-viduals or an entire peer group.

Ceremony and ritual. The cultural ap-proach incorporates ceremony and ritual.Many American Indian prevention pro-grams invite community elders to partici-pate. Elders and medicine men andwomen are indispensable to youth re-learning Indian cultural values becausethey are the transmitters of the culture.Most tribal values are incongruent withalcohol and drug abuse (Beauvais, 1992).Typically, a person may not participatein ceremonies until he or she has beendrug and alcohol free for a prescribedamount of time. This repulsion of alcoholand drugs extends to the objects used andclothing worn in ceremonies. OneAmerican Indian youth was overheard tosay, “I never drink when I’m wearing myribbon shirt” (P.D. Mail, retired memberof the National Institute for AlcoholAbuse and Alcoholism, personal commu-nication, 1996).4 Medicine men andwomen, healers, and healing ceremonieshave also been cited as invaluable cul-tural resources for dealing with life crises(Beauvais and Oetting, 1999).

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“the promotion of health and the elimina-tion of alcohol abuse and its consequencesthrough communitywide efforts, such asimproving knowledge, altering the envi-ronment, and changing the social struc-ture norms and values.”

The comprehensive community ap-proach has long been advocated bypeople working in primary prevention(see, e.g., Beauvais and LaBoueff, 1985).Some believe, as does May (1995a), thatcommunities must first work throughtheir collective trauma before they canbegin primary prevention activities. Re-search clinician Maria Yellow HorseBrave Heart (1999) developed an ap-proach to resolve community traumabased on the theory that the effects ofhistorical trauma continue to affectAmerican Indian people for generations,putting children at risk for substanceabuse. Her theoretical constructs, devel-oped in 1988, describe historical traumaand historical trauma response. Shepoints out that intergenerational trans-mission of trauma is quite commonamong oppressed populations, citing thegenerational group trauma that has beenidentified among the descendants of Jew-ish Holocaust victims.

The historical communal trauma of theAmerican Indian people has its roots indevastating losses of land and the collec-tive memory of past massacres such asthose that occurred at Wounded Kneeand Sand Creek. At one time, elimina-tion of the American Indian populationwas the policy of the Federal Govern-ment. The Government also removedgenerations of American Indian childrenfrom their families and put them in

abusive boarding schools. Brave Heartfinds evidence that historical grief andpsychological pain frequently are experi-enced as if they were current becauseIndians were forbidden to practice indig-enous ceremonies that deal with grief un-til the American Indian Freedom ofReligion Act was passed by Congress in1978.

Brave Heart has demonstrated thatpervasive historical trauma can becathartically released in a well-plannedcommunal intervention. In 1992, sheconducted such an intervention for agroup of Lakota people in the BlackHills. She believes that following suchcommunity interventions, American In-dian people “shift from identifying withthe victimization and massacre of de-ceased ancestors and begin to develop aconstructive collective memory” (BraveHeart, 1998:302).

Additional CommunityApproachesCSAP operates on the principle that pri-mary prevention should be implementedfrom within the community rather thanfrom the top down by Federal agencies.Over the years, CSAP has developed pre-vention materials that are adaptable todifferent tribes and tribal groups. Probablythe best example is The Gathering of Na-tive Americans (GONA) program manual(Center for Substance Abuse Preventionand Indian Health Services, 1999). Com-munity healing of historical and culturaltrauma is the central theme of the GONAapproach. The GONA curriculum wasdeveloped in 1992–94 under contract toCSAP by a team of American Indiantrainers and curriculum developers fromacross the United States. The GONAmanual is a culturally specific preventiontool that can provide structure to commu-nities addressing the effects of alcohol andother substance abuse.

The effects of trauma continue to affectAmerican Indians for generations, puttingchildren at risk for substance abuse.



Notah Begay III—A Leader On and Off the Course

Difficult life experiences, including those involving the abuse ofalcohol or other drugs, affect people differently. Some refuse toaccept responsibility for their actions and fail to turn their livesaround. If we are wise, however, we strive to learn from our mis-takes by accepting responsibility and changing our destructive be-havior. If we are compassionate, we go a step further and use thosehard-earned lessons to teach others so that they may avoid makingthe same mistakes that we have made.

Notah Begay III, the first American Indian ever to play on the Pro-fessional Golf Association (PGA) tour, is a talented golfer, one of12 who represented the United States in the President’s Cup 2000.He is also a wise and compassionate man.

Early this year—following an impressive 1999 rookie year in whichhe won two PGA tournaments, earned more than $1 million, andwas nominated for Rookie of the Year—Begay was arrested fordrunken driving in Albuquerque, NM. “Being handcuffed, finger-printed, and put in a cell is so humiliating,” he later confided.

It is particularly so when you are a man who takes pride in the heritage of your people. It is even more so whenyou honor your responsibility as a role model. Begay does both. At Stanford, he once daubed ceremonial clayunder his eyes before heading to the first tee, but it was what took place in an Albuquerque courtroom follow-ing the 27-year-old golfer’s arrest that demonstrated how seriously he took his responsibility as a role model.

Against the advice of counsel, Begay pled guilty to a charge of aggravated drunken driving and voluntarily in-formed the court of a prior arrest for driving while under the influence of alcohol (which added 5 days to themandatory 2-day jail sentence). He was also given a year’s probation, fined, ordered to perform community ser-vice, deprived of his driver’s license, and prohibited from drinking alcohol for 1 year.

Bernalillo County’s chief deputy district attorney had not seen anything quite like it in the 22 years he hadpracticed law. “We’ve dealt with a lot of athletes in the past who are reluctant to share any responsibility fortheir actions,” Pete Dinelli told the press. “I can’t ever recall where we had a young man step up to the plate,admit what he did, and basically demand that he pay his debt to society. It was really refreshing.”

For Begay, accepting responsibility was the only way to go. “All I know is that I needed to do the absoluteright thing to make up for this. I needed to come clean.”

Accepting responsibility is nothing new for Begay, whose success as a golfer has been accompanied by pride inthe heritage of his people and a commitment to serve as a role model for American Indian youth. He hasworked closely with the U.S. Golf Association and the Native American Sports Council to set up junior golfprograms for tribal youth. Begay has also testified before a Senate subcommittee on the state of American In-dian youth and the factors that he believes contributed to his success.

Life’s dearest lessons often come at considerable cost, but Begay is determined to share the dividends with themany youngsters who crowd his public appearances. “I’m telling you all this because I want you to learn frommy mistake,” he confides, adding, “Stay off drugs. Stay in school.”

Notah Begay III after winning the1999 Reno Tahoe Open.

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Juvenile Justice

evaluation of substance abuse preventionprograms.

One factor to consider is that AmericanIndian substance abuse programs treat thelink between prevention and treatmentdifferently than non-Indian programs.Non-Indian practitioners tend to see pre-vention as one step on a continuum thatprogresses from primary preventionthrough intervention to treatment andaftercare/rehabilitation (see figure 1). Incontrast, American Indian practitionerssee primary prevention as part of a cyclethat moves through intervention, treat-ment, aftercare/rehabilitation and back toprimary prevention (see figure 2, page 30).

The prevention program of the Red LakeBand of Chippewa in Minnesota exem-plifies the connection between preven-tion and aftercare. One component ofRed Lake’s program, which has been ineffect since the early 1980’s, is an after-school community center for youth. Thecenter, which is open from 2 until 10 p.m.every day, is operated by American Indiansubstance abuse program staff. Youth par-ticipate in many activities at the center,including making crafts and powwow re-galia, and in camping and rollerskating.Parents are required to participate in thecamping and rollerskating activities.

With a prevention strategy frameworkbased on values inherent to traditionaltribal cultures, the GONA training pro-gram quickly became one of the CSAPservices most requested by American In-dian communities. It is based on a theoryof four stages of development: belonging,mastery, independence, and generosity.The underlying concept is that healthydevelopment requires each child, eachperson, and each community to gothrough certain stages. If a stage ismissed, the individual or communitymust later go back and work through it inorder to develop fully. Because so manytribal communities have been trauma-tized by substance abuse, poverty, unem-ployment, and historical grief, triballeaders have found this model useful inbeginning community healing by gather-ing the people together to develop acommunity response to the problemsthey are facing.

Many people, tribes, and organizationsand several government agencies (such asthe Indian Health Service) contributedto developing and funding GONAtrainings and to the recent publication ofa shorter, revised GONA manual.6

Although the GONA manual has stimu-lated interest in many tribal communi-ties, Thurman and colleagues (in press)caution that communities, like individu-als, differ in their stages of readiness forintervention and that it is often neces-sary to prepare a community for collec-tive action and change. Some steps thatcan be taken to prepare a community in-clude holding prevention training for ser-vice providers; writing grants to supportneeds analysis, strategic planning, andprogram development and implementa-tion; and disseminating information onprevention programs. Thurman and col-leagues developed a nine-stage model ofcommunity readiness that ranges fromcommunity tolerance of youth alcoholand drug use to implementation and

Cop

yrig

ht ©

200

0 C

orbi

s



No discussion of American Indian sub-stance abuse would be complete withoutmentioning the National Association forNative American Children of Alcoholics(NANACOA). Founded in 1988,NANACOA develops informational ma-terials for American Indian communities,including publications, videotapes, andposters, and works with local and na-tional policymakers to address the needsof American Indian children of alcohol-ics. In their workshops and conferences,NANACOA members address the effectsof intergenerational alcoholism andother types of trauma and strive for thewell-being of all American Indians.Over the years, CSAP has helped funda number of NANACOA’s projects, in-cluding the Healing Journey Accord andthe Buffalo Robe project, which tells thestory of the battle with alcohol and drugproblems through painting on a buffalohide.7 In the past year, CSAP hasworked closely with White Bison, Inc.,an American Indian-owned nonprofitcompany, to develop prevention materi-als; organize a sacred walk from Los An-geles, CA, to Washington, DC; andcreate a Web site offering communitykits, videos, and information about

Figure 1: Continuum of Health Care

The director of the program, RichardSeki, says that they often need 4–5 busesto transport 400–500 youth and parentsto Bemidji, the nearest town to the reser-vation (a 45-minute ride) for the center’sweekly rollerskating activity (R. Seki,personal communications, 2000). Overthe past 4 years, approximately 1,000children from the reservation have at-tended the summer cultural immersioncamp in which the Chippewa, or Ojibwa,language plays a key role. Seki seeks togive youth a sense of belonging and a re-spect for traditions nearly forgotten inthe modern world.

The center and its related activities arereferred to as “prevention activities,” anda core group of 20–25 youth form thenucleus of a nonusing peer group. How-ever, when other teens return from ad-diction treatment, they are encouragedto get involved in youth center activities,which are considered aftercare. Thus,the same cultural activities serve as bothprimary prevention and aftercare/rehabilitation. Together, the youthparticipating in the program constitutethe major nonusing peer cluster on thereservation.

Universal

Selective

Indicated

Case Identification

StandardTreatment for KnownDisorders

ComplianceWith Long-Term

Treatment(Goal: Reductionin Relapse and

Recurrence)Aftercare(Including

Rehabilitation)

Prev

entio

n

Treatment

Maintenance

Source: Mrazek, P.J., and Haggerty, R.J., eds. 1994. Reducing Risks for Mental Disorders: Frontiersfor Preventive Intervention Research. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Reprinted withthe permission of the National Academy Press.

30

Juvenile Justice

American Indian trainers experienced infacilitating substance abuse training.8

ConclusionJust as there is no single American Indiandrinking pattern (May, 1994), there is nosingle American Indian prevention strat-egy. It is not a matter of choosing betweenculturally based prevention strategies andother prevention strategies. Rather, Ameri-can Indians can create more effective sub-stance abuse prevention programs bycombining ethnic and cultural componentswith other proven prevention strategies.Taking this action as a matter of course willmake prevention programs more effectivein the long run by enhancing protectivefactors and mitigating risk factors in thelives of American Indian youth.

For FurtherInformationDescriptions of additional American In-dian substance abuse prevention pro-grams can be found on the Web site forCSAP’s Western Center for Applied Pre-vention Technologies, www.open.org/~westcapt/bpetlnk2.htm.

The full list of references for this articleis available online at www.ncjrs.org/html/ojjdp/jjjnl_2000_12/ref.html.

Notes1. Although it is beyond the scope of this article todescribe the sweatlodge ceremony, information isreadily available in resources such as McClintock(1910), Brown (1953), Fire and Erdoes (1972),Young, Ingram, and Swartz (1989), and Taylor(1996). Smudging involves the use of an incensemade of a local natural plant, such as sage, sweet-grass, or cedar, to cleanse the air and change themood of everyday life to one of respect and rever-ence suitable for prayer.

2. CSAP is the Federal agency responsible forproviding a national focus on the prevention ofsubstance abuse.

3. “Making relatives” occurs when tribal membersceremonially adopt a nontribal member.

4. Ribbon shirts are made of cotton and haveribbons sewn horizontally on the material. Theseshirts are worn only during formal ceremonies.

5. A vision quest is an extended meditation or re-treat (typically 4 days long) that takes place in anisolated area. The spiritual purposes of the visionquest are to renew faith, sacrifice, and seek guidance.

6. The GONA manual is available fromSAMHSA’s National Clearinghouse for Alcoholand Drug Information at 800–729–6686. Ask foritem number BKD 367.

7. The Healing Journey Accord presents a visionof strong, healthy American Indian communitiesfor the year 2005 with accompanying strategies.The vision and strategies were identified and theAccord was written at a national tribal summit in1995. Additional information on NANACOAcan be found at www.ndpl.org/nanacoa.html.

8. For more information about White Bison, Inc.,visit their Web site at www.whitebison.org.

Figure 2: Tribal View of Substance Abuse Cycle

Primary Prevention

Intervention

TreatmentAftercare

Rehabilitation

JUSTICE MATTERSIN BRIEF


Understanding and Responding toYouth Gangs in Indian CountryConsensus that youth gangs havebecome a cause for major concernin Indian country is growing. Onceconsidered a “big city” problem,youth gangs have emerged in smallcities and rural counties across theUnited States in the past decade.Recent reports by the Federal Bu-reau of Investigation and theNational Alliance of Gang Investi-gators Associations state that gangsof varying levels of sophisticationcan now be found on most Ameri-can Indian reservations and thatthese gangs are accountable for thedramatic increase in violent crimesin Indian country over the past de-cade. In recent years, the Bureau ofIndian Affairs (BIA) has conductedtwo surveys of tribal law enforce-ment to better understand the scopeand nature of the gang problem andhas increased resources and coordi-nation with other Federal agenciesto respond to this problem.

Effective responses to gangs in anysetting include ongoing, careful as-sessment of the local gang problem.The Office of Juvenile Justice andDelinquency Prevention (OJJDP) isfunding a broad-based assessment ofgang activity within the Navajo Na-tion. The final report, now in devel-opment, will include discussion ofthe nature and causes of Navajogang violence and recommenda-tions for responses to gangs thatmay be adapted by other tribes.

OJJDP is committed to developingknowledge about youth gangs in In-dian country and to supporting ef-fective approaches that address thisproblem. To this end, the agencyawarded grants to the following tworesearch projects this year. TheCalifornia State University, Sacra-mento, will extend the approachused in the Navajo study to exam-ine the factors shaping the origins,organization, and activities ofAmerican Indian youth gangs in upto six reservation and urban set-tings. In this 2-year study, which ispart of OJJDP’s Tribal Youth Pro-gram, researchers will also identifyand recommend promising re-sponses to gangs in Indian country.The second project, still under de-velopment, is a new Indian countrygang survey conducted by the Na-tional Youth Gang Center in con-junction with BIA. This 1-yearstudy will provide improved esti-mates of gang prevalence and cur-rent information on gang activitiesand community responses in Indiancountry.

OJJDP also supports gang preven-tion efforts in Indian countrythrough the Gang PreventionThrough Targeted Outreach(GPTTO) program of the Boys &Girls Clubs of America. GPTTOprovides youth at risk of joininggangs with educational activities that

focus on personal development, suchas conflict resolution, goal setting,job skills, and decisionmaking.GPTTO also offers recreational ac-tivities that promote interpersonalskills and serve as alternatives to thegang lifestyle. In recent years, Indiancountry Boys & Girls Clubs inBox Elder, MT, Lame Deer, MT,Mescalero, NM, and Sisseton, SD,have received funding to implementGPTTO. Training and support forGPTTO have also been provided tothe Boys & Girls Club in OttawaCounty, OK, which serves numeroustribes, and to the Fort Belknap reser-vation as part of its participation inOJJDP’s SafeFutures initiative.

Reducing gang activity in Indiancountry requires continued coordi-nation at the tribal, Federal, State,and local levels. Effective program-ming must be supported by sophisti-cated and culturally appropriateresearch, training, and technicalassistance. Through the TribalYouth Program, which is describedin greater detail on pages 9–19,OJJDP will continue to build oncurrent efforts to reduce gang crimein Indian country.

For additional informationabout youth gangs in Indiancountry, e-mail Phelan Wyrickat [email protected] or call202–514–9295.

32

IN BRIEF

Forging a New Path: A Guide to StartingBoys & Girls Clubs in Indian Country

Enlarging the Healing Circle:Ensuring Justice for AmericanIndian ChildrenAccording to this report recently pub-lished by the Coalition for JuvenileJustice (CJJ), American Indian youthare being arrested more often thanexpected, given their relative numberin the population. American Indianyouth make up 1 percent of the U.S.population ages 10–17, but constitute2 to 3 percent of the youth arrestedfor such offenses as larceny-theft andliquor law violations.

Enlarging the Healing Circle identi-fies substance abuse, depression,gang involvement, and inadequa-cies in the legal process as contri-butors to tribal juvenile delinquency.Drawing on the experiences andfindings of more than 300 AmericanIndian advocates and service provid-ers brought together by CJJ, thisreport makes a series of targeted

recommendations intended to reduceAmerican Indian juvenile crimerates. CJJ has sent the report to StateGovernors, the U.S. Congress, andthe U.S. Department of Justice.

To order a copy, e-mail CJJ [email protected] or call 202–467–0864. A $3.00 fee is requested todefray shipping and handling costs.

This guide, which was published bythe U.S. Department of Housingand Urban Development (HUD)with help from Boys & Girls Clubsof America, describes how to adaptthe Boys & Girls Clubs’ proven pre-vention model to promote educa-tion, healthy lifestyles, culturalenrichment, and leadership devel-opment among youth in AmericanIndian communities.

In 1987, HUD launched an initiativewith the Boys & Girls Clubs ofAmerica to establish Boys & GirlsClubs in public housing communitiesacross the Nation. These Clubs ben-efit youth at risk for substance abuse,health problems, pregnancy, crime,delinquency, and other problems. In

1996, HUD expanded this effort byinitiating an aggressive plan to helptribes set up Boys & Girls Clubs inIndian country. Written for tribalcouncil members, Tribally DesignatedHousing Entity staff members, andleaders in American Indian commu-nities, Forging a New Path projectsthat 100 such clubs will be operatingby the end of the year 2000.

The manual’s first section discussesthe provision of youth services in In-dian country, the advantages of be-longing to Boys & Girls Clubs,support available through HUD forclubs in Indian country, the require-ments for starting a club, and methodsof promoting interest in a club. Thenext section explains how to develop

a relationship with Boys & GirlsClubs of America, gain charter mem-bership, establish governing struc-tures, plan and maintain a facility,and collaborate with other organi-zations. It also covers staff resources,club management, membership re-cruitment and retention, program se-lection and creation, and safety andsecurity. Additional sections provideinstructions for resource developmentand fund raising, profiles of Boys &Girls Clubs in Indian country, andcontact information.

To order a copy, visit HUD’s Website at www.hud.gov/dds/index.cfmor call 800–767–7468 (refer to itemnumber 5591).

Volume VII • Number 2 33

IN BRIEF

This article, which appeared in theSubstance Abuse Prevention inMulticultural Communities issueof Drugs & Society (vol. 12, no. 1/2,1998) and was written by EvaPetoskey, Kit Van Stelle, and JudithDe Jong, describes the Parent, School,and Community Partnership Pro-gram funded by the Center for Sub-stance Abuse Prevention. Thisdemonstration grant program com-bined several complementary strate-gies to prevent drug and alcoholabuse among American Indians: aschool-based cultural curriculum,teacher training, development of aleadership core group, and a com-munity curriculum. The programwas specifically designed to addressself-perceptions of personal andcommunal powerlessness amongAmerican Indians because theseperceptions place them at risk fordrug and alcohol abuse.

Analyses of the target populationfocused on substance use, schoolbonding, and the relationship be-tween cultural affiliation and sub-stance use by youth. Alcohol useamong high school students in thetarget population was somewhathigher than the national average.Both marijuana use and cigaretteuse, however, were about four timesthe national average. AmericanIndian students encountered moredifficulties in the school environ-ment than non-American Indianstudents.

Prevention Through Empowerment in aNative American Community

Of the students who received thecurriculum, fewer reported alcoholuse in the preceding month thanstudents in a comparison group.Qualitative results included in-creased social bonding at the com-munity level and increased effortsto change the community’s

strained relationship with theschool system, which was identifiedas a key concern.

Copies of this article are availablefor a fee from The Haworth Press,Inc., The Haworth DocumentDelivery Service, 800–342–9678,www.HaworthPressInc.com.

Call for MaterialsThe issues and concerns of American Indian youth are topics ofincreasing interest to professionals and researchers in the juvenile jus-tice system. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Preven-tion (OJJDP) wants to assist you and your colleagues in learning aboutthe experiences of American Indian youth via publications and otherinformation resources. OJJDP’s Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse and theNational Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) offer an exten-sive library collection covering all aspects of criminal and juvenile jus-tice and drug policy. Take advantage of the opportunity to contributeto the NCJRS library and abstracts database by sending material re-lated to American Indian youth. Contributions should be a minimumof four pages in length and must have been published within the past5 years. Materials will be reviewed by a team of highly skilled evalua-tors to determine eligibility. This process can take several weeks, andnot all material submitted is determined suitable for the collection.Materials cannot be returned. Send materials or information to:

National Criminal Justice Reference ServiceAttn: Patricia Cronin, Collection Development

2277 Research Boulevard, MS 2ARockville, MD 20850

34

IN BRIEF

OJJDP ONLINE

American Indian-FocusedWeb SitesFollowing is a select list of Web addresses that link toadditional resources related to American Indianyouth. These links represent agencies, clearinghouses,and organizations and associations.

Community and Personal DevelopmentThe Aboriginal Youth Networkwww.ayn.ca/news/0008/indian_youth.htm

American Indian Child Resource Centerwww.aicrc.org

American Indian Community Housewww.aich.org

Indian Country Todaywww.indiancountry.com

Native American Heritagewww.nativeamericanheritage.com

United National Indian Tribal Youth (UNITY)www.unityinc.org

LANCEwww.lance.org

Legal IssuesThe National American Indian Court JudgesAssociation (NAICJA)www.naicja.org

National Indian Justice Centernijc.indian.com/main.htm

Native American Rights Fundwww.narf.org

Tribal Court Clearinghousewww.tribal-institute.org

Wheel Council, Inc.www.wheelcouncil.org

Social IssuesAmerican Indian/Alaska Native Community SuicidePrevention Center and Networkwww.jade2.tec.nm.us/cspcn/index.html

The Healthy Nations Initiativewww.uchsc.edu/sm/hnp

The National Indian Child Welfare Associationwww.nicwa.org

National Native American AIDS Prevention Centerwww.nnaapc.org

White Bisonwww.whitebison.org

EducationAmerican Indian Research and Policy Institutewww.airpi.org

Institute of American Indian Studies, University ofSouth Dakotawww.usd.edu/iais

National Congress of American Indianswww.ncai.org

GovernmentBureau of Indian Affairswww.doi.gov/bureau-indian-affairs.html

Indian Health Servicewww.ihs.gov

Office of Tribal Justicewww.usdoj.gov/otj

Juvenile Justice Order FormVolume VII • Number 2 December 2000

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Revised 11/8/00

OJJDP produces a variety of publications—FactSheets, Bulletins, Summaries, Reports, and theJuvenile Justice journal—along with video-tapes, including broadcasts from the juvenilejustice telecommunications initiative. ThroughOJJDP’s Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse (JJC),these publications and other resources are asclose as your phone, fax, computer, or mailbox.Phone:800–638–8736(Monday–Friday, 8:30 a.m.–7 p.m. ET)Fax:410–792–4358 (to order publications)301–519–5600 (to ask questions)Online:

OJJDP Home Page:www.ojjdp.ncjrs.orgTo Order Materials:www.ncjrs.org/puborderE-Mail:[email protected] (to ask questionsabout materials)

Mail:Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse/NCJRSP.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000Fact Sheets and Bulletins are also availablethrough fax-on-demand.Fax-on-Demand:800–638–8736, select option 1 and listen forinstructions.To ensure timely notice of new publications,subscribe to JUVJUST, OJJDP’s electronicmailing list.JUVJUST Mailing List:E-mail to [email protected] the subject line blankType subscribe juvjust your nameIn addition, JJC, through the National CriminalJustice Reference Service (NCJRS), is the re-pository for tens of thousands of criminal andjuvenile justice publications and resourcesfrom around the world. They are abstractedand placed in a database, which is searchableonline (www.ncjrs.org/database.htm). You arealso welcome to submit materials to JJC forinclusion in the database.The following list highlights popular and re-cently published OJJDP documents and video-tapes, grouped by topical areas.The OJJDP Publications List (BC000115) offersa complete list of OJJDP publications and isalso available online.In addition, the OJJDP Fact Sheet Flier(LT000333) offers a complete list of OJJDPFact Sheets and is available online.OJJDP also sponsors a teleconference initia-tive, and a flier (LT116) offers a complete list ofvideos available from these broadcasts.

Corrections and DetentionBeyond the Walls: Improving Conditions ofConfinement for Youth in Custody. 1998,NCJ 164727 (116 pp.).Disproportionate Minority Confinement: 1997Update. 1998, NCJ 170606 (12 pp.).Disproportionate Minority Confinement:Lessons Learned From Five States. 1998,NCJ 173420 (12 pp.).

Juvenile Arrests 1997. 1999, NCJ 173938(12 pp.).Reintegration, Supervised Release, and Inten-sive Aftercare. 1999, NCJ 175715 (24 pp.).

CourtsGuide for Implementing the Balanced and Re-storative Justice Model. 1998. NCJ 167887(112 pp.).Innovative Approaches to Juvenile IndigentDefense. 1998, NCJ 171151 (8 pp.).Juvenile Court Statistics 1997. 2000,NCJ 180864 (120 pp.).Offenders in Juvenile Court, 1997. 2000,NCJ 181204 (16 pp.).RESTTA National Directory of Restitutionand Community Service Programs. 1998,NCJ 166365 (500 pp.), $33.50.Trying Juveniles as Adults in Criminal Court:An Analysis of State Transfer Provisions. 1998,NCJ 172836 (112 pp.).Youth Courts: A National Movement Teleconfer-ence (Video). 1998, NCJ 171149 (120 min.), $17.

Delinquency Prevention1998 Report to Congress: Juvenile MentoringProgram (JUMP). 1999, NCJ 173424 (65 pp.).1998 Report to Congress: Title V IncentiveGrants for Local Delinquency Prevention Pro-grams. 1999, NCJ 176342 (58 pp.).Combating Violence and Delinquency: TheNational Juvenile Justice Action Plan (Report).1996, NCJ 157106 (200 pp.).Combating Violence and Delinquency: TheNational Juvenile Justice Action Plan(Summary). 1996, NCJ 157105 (36 pp.).Effective Family Strengthening Interventions.1998, NCJ 171121 (16 pp.).Juvenile Accountability Incentive Block GrantsStrategic Planning Guide. 1999, NCJ 172846(62 pp.).Parents Anonymous: Strengthening America’sFamilies. 1999, NCJ 171120 (12 pp.).Prenatal and Early Childhood Nurse HomeVisitation. 1998, NCJ 172875 (8 pp.).Treatment Foster Care. 1999, NCJ 173421(12 pp.).

Gangs1997 National Youth Gang Survey. 1999,NCJ 178891 (82 pp.).Gang Members on the Move. 1998,NCJ 171153 (12 pp.).Youth Gangs: An Overview. 1998, NCJ 167249(20 pp.).The Youth Gangs, Drugs, and Violence Con-nection. 1999, NCJ 171152 (12 pp.).Youth Gangs in America Teleconference(Video). 1997, NCJ 164937 (120 min.), $17.

General Juvenile JusticeComprehensive Juvenile Justice in StateLegislatures Teleconference (Video). 1998,NCJ 169593 (120 min.), $17.Guidelines for the Screening of Persons Work-ing With Children, the Elderly, and IndividualsWith Disabilities in Need of Support. 1998,NCJ 167248 (52 pp.).Juvenile Justice, Volume VII, Number 1. 2000,NCJ 178256 (40 pp.).

A Juvenile Justice System for the 21st Century.1998, NCJ 169726 (8 pp.).Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 NationalReport. 1999, NCJ 178257 (232 pp.).OJJDP Research: Making a Difference forJuveniles. 1999, NCJ 177602 (52 pp.).Promising Strategies To Reduce Gun Violence.1999, NCJ 173950 (253 pp.).Sharing Information: A Guide to the FamilyEducational Rights and Privacy Act andParticipation in Juvenile Justice Programs.1997, NCJ 163705 (52 pp.).

Missing and Exploited ChildrenPortable Guides to Investigating Child Abuse(13-title series).Protecting Children Online Teleconference(Video). 1998, NCJ 170023 (120 min.), $17.When Your Child Is Missing: A Family SurvivalGuide. 1998, NCJ 170022 (96 pp.).

Substance AbuseThe Coach’s Playbook Against Drugs. 1998,NCJ 173393 (20 pp.).Drug Identification and Testing in the JuvenileJustice System. 1998, NCJ 167889 (92 pp.).Preparing for the Drug Free Years. 1999,NCJ 173408 (12 pp.).

Violence and VictimizationCombating Fear and Restoring Safety inSchools. 1998, NCJ 167888 (16 pp.).Guide for Implementing the ComprehensiveStrategy for Serious, Violent, and ChronicJuvenile Offenders. 1995, NCJ 153681(255 pp.).Report to Congress on Juvenile ViolenceResearch. 1999, NCJ 176976 (44 pp.)Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders. 1998,NCJ 170027 (8 pp.).Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: RiskFactors and Successful Interventions Teleconfer-ence (Video). 1998, NCJ 171286 (120 min.), $17.State Legislative Responses to Violent JuvenileCrime: 1996–97 Update. 1998, NCJ 172835(16 pp.).White House Conference on School Safety:Causes and Prevention of Youth ViolenceTeleconference (Video). 1998, NCJ 173399(240 min.), $17.

Youth in ActionCommunity Cleanup. 1999, NCJ 171690 (6 pp.).Cross-Age Teaching. 1999, NCJ 171688 (8 pp.).Make a Friend—Be a Peer Mentor. 1999,NCJ 171691 (8 pp.).Plan A Special Event. 1999, NCJ 171689(8 pp.).Planning a Successful Crime PreventionProject. 1998, NCJ 170024 (28 pp.).Stand Up and Start a School Crime Watch.1998, NCJ 171123 (8 pp.)Two Generations—Partners in Prevention.1999, NCJ 171687 (8 pp.).Wipe Out Vandalism and Graffiti. 1998,NCJ 171122 (8 pp.).Youth Preventing Drug Abuse. 1998,NCJ 171124 (8 pp.).

NCJ 184747

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U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

Washington, DC 20531

Official BusinessPenalty for Private Use $300

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