Chairing a session Chairing a session and Being aand Being a DiscussantDiscussant

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Tips for presenting, Tips for presenting, chairing, and discussing at chairing, and discussing at

conferencesconferencesThe major pointers (the three P's):The major pointers (the three P's):• Be Be preparedprepared - regardless of the role you - regardless of the role you

have, make sure to prepare fully beforehand. have, make sure to prepare fully beforehand. • Be Be professionalprofessional - make sure you act - make sure you act

professionally throughout the process. professionally throughout the process. • Be Be promptprompt - Make sure to show up early for - Make sure to show up early for

our panel. You should be at the room at least our panel. You should be at the room at least 10 minutes before "show time" so that you 10 minutes before "show time" so that you can prepare yourself, and interact with can prepare yourself, and interact with presenters. presenters.

Chairing the sessionChairing the session• Speak confidently -- good voice projection and eye Speak confidently -- good voice projection and eye

contact is important. So look at the audience !!contact is important. So look at the audience !!• Speak sufficiently slowly that each word is clear. Speak sufficiently slowly that each word is clear.

Do not ‘swallow’ words.Do not ‘swallow’ words.• Introduce the speaker/presenter by covering, at Introduce the speaker/presenter by covering, at

the very least, their name and the title of what they the very least, their name and the title of what they will present. You may also include a little of their will present. You may also include a little of their background.background.

• Also introduce the discussant and explain any Also introduce the discussant and explain any aspects of their role you would like to being to the aspects of their role you would like to being to the attention of the audience.attention of the audience.

Being a Chair Being a Chair (chairman/chairperson)(chairman/chairperson)

Your main job is to facilitate the Your main job is to facilitate the presentations.presentations.

• Keep time. Be prepared to hand the Keep time. Be prepared to hand the

speaker a slip of paper with time remaining speaker a slip of paper with time remaining at 3 minutes before the end and 1 minutes at 3 minutes before the end and 1 minutes before the end. before the end.

• You can allow each person a minute or so You can allow each person a minute or so beyond their allotted time, but then wait for beyond their allotted time, but then wait for them to take a breath and simply interject them to take a breath and simply interject something like "Time is up. Could you something like "Time is up. Could you please wrap up now?"please wrap up now?"

Managing QuestionsManaging Questions• Chairs usually manage the questions coming from the Chairs usually manage the questions coming from the

audience. Begin by saying ‘Now, I would like to open audience. Begin by saying ‘Now, I would like to open the session up for questions. If it's a small group, you the session up for questions. If it's a small group, you can ask people to identify themselves. can ask people to identify themselves.

• If people go on too long with their questions/comments, If people go on too long with their questions/comments, you can ask them to get to the point in a polite way, you can ask them to get to the point in a polite way, but don't sweat on it. Try to manage things well, but but don't sweat on it. Try to manage things well, but don't worry if you don't.don't worry if you don't.

• Ending the session.Ending the session. Say something like, ‘Well, if there Say something like, ‘Well, if there are no more questions, I would like to conclude by are no more questions, I would like to conclude by thanking our presenter for providing us with their thanking our presenter for providing us with their presentation and I would now like to call on the presentation and I would now like to call on the discussant to provide a critique of the presentation and discussant to provide a critique of the presentation and the manner in which it was delivered.’the manner in which it was delivered.’

Being a DiscussantBeing a DiscussantThe major task of a discussant is to provide focused The major task of a discussant is to provide focused

and useful constructive criticism and suggestions and useful constructive criticism and suggestions for their papers.for their papers.

Make specific constructive criticisms and suggestions – Make specific constructive criticisms and suggestions –

include at least the following 4 aspects. include at least the following 4 aspects.

1. Begin with one positive element of the paper. 1. Begin with one positive element of the paper. 2 Goal of paper or presentation.2 Goal of paper or presentation.33 Point out something that they could do which Point out something that they could do which

would strengthen the paper.would strengthen the paper.44 Comment on the goal aspects of their presentation Comment on the goal aspects of their presentation

ability, but also draw attention to anything that you ability, but also draw attention to anything that you feel should be improvedfeel should be improved

The Target GroupsThe Target GroupsThe discussantThe discussant has to satisfy two key groups has to satisfy two key groups

• First, the First, the discussant is responsible to the audiencediscussant is responsible to the audience at the at the session. The audience normally see the discussant as the session. The audience normally see the discussant as the person who can best provide a ‘road map’ for research in person who can best provide a ‘road map’ for research in this area and interpret the poster/paper in the context of this area and interpret the poster/paper in the context of that road map that road map (this applies to your NOS presentations(this applies to your NOS presentations). ).

• Second, the Second, the discussant is responsible to the authordiscussant is responsible to the author of the of the poster/paper. The author are looking for meaningful and poster/paper. The author are looking for meaningful and constructive feedback on the paper. The discussant has constructive feedback on the paper. The discussant has to do all of this in a very short period of time! to do all of this in a very short period of time!

What NEITHER group is looking for is for the discussant to What NEITHER group is looking for is for the discussant to talk about THEIR OWN research. That is not the purpose of a talk about THEIR OWN research. That is not the purpose of a discussant! Please refrain from treading down that path.discussant! Please refrain from treading down that path.

Think positiveThink positiveAlways start your intervention as a discussant by Always start your intervention as a discussant by

pointing out pointing out what the poster/NOS presentation what the poster/NOS presentation has tried to dohas tried to do (what do you see as its main (what do you see as its main message) and message) and

how it helped tohow it helped to provide a new and interesting provide a new and interesting empirical material, came to a surprising insight, empirical material, came to a surprising insight, or whatever (what do you like about it). or whatever (what do you like about it).

Almost all presentations are potentially good, and Almost all presentations are potentially good, and it is your duty to make sure it is your duty to make sure that that comes out. comes out.

A critique of the position developed in the paper A critique of the position developed in the paper can wait until after you've done that.can wait until after you've done that.

• Remember, that most criticism can be made Remember, that most criticism can be made constructive simply by phrasing it as "constructive simply by phrasing it as "One One thing that you might do to strengthen your thing that you might do to strengthen your argument/presentationargument/presentation is to [bring more of is to [bring more of the recent literature on X to bear on the the recent literature on X to bear on the topic] [speak more loudly/slower]" topic] [speak more loudly/slower]"

• or "or "The excellent theoretical material that The excellent theoretical material that you have brought together in the you have brought together in the poster/paper could be presented even more poster/paper could be presented even more compellingly bycompellingly by [making use of some of the [making use of some of the empirical material as anecdotal illustrations empirical material as anecdotal illustrations of the key theoretical points] [being more of the key theoretical points] [being more emphatic in you use of expressions]." emphatic in you use of expressions]."

Other factors when being a Other factors when being a poster or a paper poster or a paper

discussantdiscussant• Your comments are meant to be the most Your comments are meant to be the most

thought-throughthought-through reactions that the author reactions that the author receives on that presentation. receives on that presentation.

• Your comments should concentrate on Your comments should concentrate on making a poster/paper better: having a : having a poster/paper discussed at a workshop is poster/paper discussed at a workshop is an important formal moment in the an important formal moment in the process of writing a paper, and you are the process of writing a paper, and you are the institutional vehicle for that. institutional vehicle for that.

Rules for DiscussantsRules for DiscussantsThere are two simple rules to follow: There are two simple rules to follow: 1.1. Do not do unto others what you would not want Do not do unto others what you would not want

to have done unto youto have done unto you;. That is, give the type of ;. That is, give the type of comments that you would like to receive yourself.comments that you would like to receive yourself.

22. Divide up your critique. Divide up your critique By and large, a poster/paper can be evaluated By and large, a poster/paper can be evaluated

using three criteria: using three criteria: • the central argument – what it is and how it was the central argument – what it is and how it was

expressed, expressed, • the method, (what this is and how it was made clear) the method, (what this is and how it was made clear) • the organisation/presentation of the poster/paper. the organisation/presentation of the poster/paper.

Going into more detail about Going into more detail about being a discussant for a being a discussant for a conference poster/paper or conference poster/paper or set of papers.set of papers.

These points go beyond our These points go beyond our little practice sessions and little practice sessions and try to help in the real try to help in the real conference situationconference situation

Central argumentCentral argumentTry to capture the central argument of the poster/paper in a Try to capture the central argument of the poster/paper in a

few words. few words. Often the author benefits tremendously simply by having you re-state what he or she was trying to say..

This may take the form of: This may take the form of: pointing out other positions in the debate that the author pointing out other positions in the debate that the author

did not acknowledge, did not acknowledge, a head-on critique of the central claim of the a head-on critique of the central claim of the

poster/paper, with which you disagree, or poster/paper, with which you disagree, or the presentation of "disturbing" new facts that you have the presentation of "disturbing" new facts that you have

and which fit rather uneasily with the point of the and which fit rather uneasily with the point of the poster/paper.poster/paper.

MethodMethod• Explicitly address issues of design and method. Explicitly address issues of design and method.

Again, the first step in this process is to Again, the first step in this process is to (re)state (re)state what the author is trying to dowhat the author is trying to do, and assess it on , and assess it on those terms. those terms.

• Always be helpful, i.e. think through, in a virtual Always be helpful, i.e. think through, in a virtual or real discussion with the author, or real discussion with the author, how how methodological problems could be resolved.methodological problems could be resolved.

• If you disagree with the method –on principle or If you disagree with the method –on principle or for this particular research question—make clear for this particular research question—make clear why you disagree. why you disagree.

• Method is important, but avoid getting bogged Method is important, but avoid getting bogged down by it.down by it.

Organisation of the Organisation of the posterposter

• Often the weakest part of conference poster/is Often the weakest part of conference poster/is the organisation: posters are written with one the organisation: posters are written with one particular outline in mind, and as the poster particular outline in mind, and as the poster evolves, some of that can get lost.evolves, some of that can get lost.

• On organisational issues, On organisational issues, you should be very you should be very toughtough: after all, that is the main instrument that : after all, that is the main instrument that the author has for making an impact. the author has for making an impact.

• It is usually this dimension of a poster/paper It is usually this dimension of a poster/paper which is most easily revised. which is most easily revised.

• A poorly organised poster/paper is difficult to A poorly organised poster/paper is difficult to read, and if the argument is worthwhile, then read, and if the argument is worthwhile, then that is a pity.that is a pity.

Building your commentaryBuilding your commentary1. Act as if the presentation is all you'll know. Given 1. Act as if the presentation is all you'll know. Given

that title, what might that title, what might (s)he(s)he say? say? 2. If you can read through the material multiple times. 2. If you can read through the material multiple times. Each time you'll see something different, because Each time you'll see something different, because

you will have had different intervening experiences you will have had different intervening experiences and you are a different reader.and you are a different reader.

3. Have definitions of key terms or seek clarification on 3. Have definitions of key terms or seek clarification on behelf of the audience (as Authors may not do this). behelf of the audience (as Authors may not do this).

You can always say, “these people are not talking You can always say, “these people are not talking about this phenomenon, as it is usually defined. It is about this phenomenon, as it is usually defined. It is usually defined as X. usually defined as X.

Possible sample leading Possible sample leading commentscomments

a. “You can do even more with this argument than what a. “You can do even more with this argument than what we've heard here. For instance,…”we've heard here. For instance,…”

b. “The predominant reference in this paper is X. What if b. “The predominant reference in this paper is X. What if it had been Y?”it had been Y?”

c. “We came to this symposium with assumptions c. “We came to this symposium with assumptions affecting our reactions. There are at least four reactions affecting our reactions. There are at least four reactions people can have: (i) that's absurd (deny assumption); people can have: (i) that's absurd (deny assumption); (ii) that's interesting (disconfirm weak assumption)’ (iii) (ii) that's interesting (disconfirm weak assumption)’ (iii) that's obvious (affirms assumptions); (iv) that's that's obvious (affirms assumptions); (iv) that's irrelevant (does not speak to assumptions). What is the irrelevant (does not speak to assumptions). What is the pattern of reactions to what we have heard?”pattern of reactions to what we have heard?”

d. “Given this topic, I expected the presenter to say X. d. “Given this topic, I expected the presenter to say X. Much to my surprise Much to my surprise he/shehe/she said Y. What can we make said Y. What can we make

of that?”of that?”

A Realistic preview of the A Realistic preview of the discussant’s rolediscussant’s role

1. You'll get none of the posters/papers in advance.1. You'll get none of the posters/papers in advance.2. At the session there will be little time left for you to 2. At the session there will be little time left for you to

make your comments.make your comments.3. In the time left, you'll be introduced as the person 3. In the time left, you'll be introduced as the person

who will pull all of this together. (this refers to who will pull all of this together. (this refers to discussing a set of papers).discussing a set of papers).

4. The audience wants you to sit down so they can ask 4. The audience wants you to sit down so they can ask their questions.their questions.

5. Being a discussant is fun to do, because you have a 5. Being a discussant is fun to do, because you have a chance to spot connections and you don't have to chance to spot connections and you don't have to worry about writing a paper during the holidays so worry about writing a paper during the holidays so as to get a slot at the meeting (being involved is as to get a slot at the meeting (being involved is often important for seeking funding !!).often important for seeking funding !!).

Coping without see posters in Coping without see posters in advanceadvance

• • Take notes.Take notes.• • To get your bearings. Why that title for the paper ? Is To get your bearings. Why that title for the paper ? Is

there a better title? Has the presentation a good there a better title? Has the presentation a good sequence? sequence?

• • It is OK to draw the audience in: Thus “before we get to It is OK to draw the audience in: Thus “before we get to your questions, let me ask you in the audience to take your questions, let me ask you in the audience to take on the role of discussant for the moment. What do you on the role of discussant for the moment. What do you think are the big ideas we heard, what surprised you, think are the big ideas we heard, what surprised you, what's controversial, what will you take away? what's controversial, what will you take away? (Don’t (Don’t allow the person working in the same research area to sleep !!)allow the person working in the same research area to sleep !!)

• • Skim a recent newspaper. Something will have been Skim a recent newspaper. Something will have been relevant to the topic. For example “There is a certain relevant to the topic. For example “There is a certain timeliness to these presentations, at least judging from timeliness to these presentations, at least judging from this item in today's ‘Postimees”.this item in today's ‘Postimees”.

Possible QuestionsPossible Questions

1.1. Isn't being a discussant just the same as being a Isn't being a discussant just the same as being a manuscript reviewer?manuscript reviewer?

AnsAns: Probably, but it shouldn't be. In a : Probably, but it shouldn't be. In a symposium, authors have a chance to correct symposium, authors have a chance to correct misperceptions of a discussant right away. misperceptions of a discussant right away.

The thinking of a discussant should not be, The thinking of a discussant should not be, ‘show me why this is a major contribution to the ‘show me why this is a major contribution to the literature’. literature’.

The thinking is something like, ‘you wouldn't have put all this work into this topic unless you thought there was something important to say’.

2. How do you make sessions exciting?2. How do you make sessions exciting?

AnsAns: One definition of “exciting” is a session : One definition of “exciting” is a session in which motivated people prepare, do their in which motivated people prepare, do their homework, make a coherent argument homework, make a coherent argument within their allotted time, and have within their allotted time, and have something interesting to say. And if it is said something interesting to say. And if it is said in an in an interesting wayinteresting way, , perhaps even in a perhaps even in a provocative wayprovocative way, then the session might be , then the session might be interesting. interesting.

And the discussant can ‘liven things up’ by And the discussant can ‘liven things up’ by trying to ‘create an atmosphere’ and trying to ‘create an atmosphere’ and perhaps playing ‘devil’s advocate’.perhaps playing ‘devil’s advocate’.

Don’t dwell on small Don’t dwell on small pointspoints

Page-by-page comments are good for email Page-by-page comments are good for email communication, but look pedantic in a public communication, but look pedantic in a public discussion. discussion. Only ifOnly if the poster is full of the poster is full of contradictions does it make sense to contradictions does it make sense to (carefully) point that out to the author. (carefully) point that out to the author.

Discussing small points only makes sense, Discussing small points only makes sense, really, if they are vital for the poster as a really, if they are vital for the poster as a whole – but then they can hardly be called whole – but then they can hardly be called "small" points !!"small" points !!

And don’t forget, the author is present. If you And don’t forget, the author is present. If you annoy them, they may make a few choice annoy them, they may make a few choice remarks about you as a discussant !!!remarks about you as a discussant !!!

Be succinctBe succinctThe discussant is not expected to take more than ten The discussant is not expected to take more than ten

minutes –this implies that you concentrate on major minutes –this implies that you concentrate on major points in the critique (a critique is both +ve and –points in the critique (a critique is both +ve and –ve). ve).

The discussion afterwards may give you time to The discussion afterwards may give you time to develop any other arguments.develop any other arguments.

On the other hand, a discussant is not going to say On the other hand, a discussant is not going to say much if the comments are too short. The discussant much if the comments are too short. The discussant is expected to be able to make meaningful points is expected to be able to make meaningful points that take at least 5 minutes. Without that the that take at least 5 minutes. Without that the audience can feel ‘cheated’.audience can feel ‘cheated’.

Write out the comments for Write out the comments for the author's purposethe author's purpose

Send the author an email with a written version of Send the author an email with a written version of your comments. your comments. You will be more economical when you are forced You will be more economical when you are forced to write them up, and discover where you were, to write them up, and discover where you were, perhaps, exaggerating your criticisms. perhaps, exaggerating your criticisms. Nothing disciplines and organises thinking as Nothing disciplines and organises thinking as much as writing. Giving the author written much as writing. Giving the author written comments is also a sign that you took the paper comments is also a sign that you took the paper seriously and it will therefore always be seriously and it will therefore always be appreciated.appreciated.

The EndThe EndFor the following sessions, I wishFor the following sessions, I wish• One person to chair each presentation.One person to chair each presentation.• A separate person to be a discussant.A separate person to be a discussant.

The presenters of their posters or their The presenters of their posters or their NOS papers are the major persons, but NOS papers are the major persons, but the chair and discussant are also under the chair and discussant are also under scutiny. Their efforts will help the scutiny. Their efforts will help the session enormously. session enormously.

Using Using EnglishEnglish

Science CommunicationScience CommunicationBGMR.09.131BGMR.09.131

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Use of English Guidelines Use of English Guidelines English has rules, but virtually all are English has rules, but virtually all are

broken in some way. broken in some way.

And there is no control over English. It is And there is no control over English. It is changing. This means there is no actual changing. This means there is no actual ‘correct’ English, except that taken as ‘correct’ English, except that taken as

acceptable by others.acceptable by others.

The good newsThe good news: Technically, you can : Technically, you can never be wrong in your pronounciation, never be wrong in your pronounciation,

use, or spelling of English !! So don’t use, or spelling of English !! So don’t worry !worry !

The bad newsThe bad news: Others need to : Others need to understand you !!understand you !!

Which English should be usedWhich English should be usedUse ‘English’ English in Europe. (But if you Use ‘English’ English in Europe. (But if you use ‘American’ English, be consistent and use ‘American’ English, be consistent and don’t switch from ‘American’ English to don’t switch from ‘American’ English to

‘English’ English.‘English’ English.Thus for ‘English’ English, it is Thus for ‘English’ English, it is

programme,programme, not program (exception – not program (exception – when it is a computer program)when it is a computer program)

And And colour, labour, harbour, centre,colour, labour, harbour, centre,

realise, specialise, analyse, metre,realise, specialise, analyse, metre,

And And ‘lift’‘lift’ rather than ‘elevator’ rather than ‘elevator’ ‘ ‘flatflat’ rather than ‘apartment’’ rather than ‘apartment’ ‘ ‘bonnet’bonnet’ (of a car) rather than ‘hood’ (of a car) rather than ‘hood’ ‘ ‘petrol’petrol’ rather than ‘gas’ (gasoline) rather than ‘gas’ (gasoline)

PronounciationPronounciationIn ‘English’ English, the emphasis is on the In ‘English’ English, the emphasis is on the 2nd 2nd

to last syllable in a word) - there will be to last syllable in a word) - there will be exceptions.exceptions.

In ‘American’ English, the emphasis is usually In ‘American’ English, the emphasis is usually on the 3rd from last syllable.on the 3rd from last syllable.

Thus Thus Tan- zan – Tan- zan – i i –a–a and Tan- and Tan- zanzan- ia- ia Con-tro-Con-tro-ver-ver-sy sy and Con- and Con-tro-tro-ver-syver-syBecause English does not define the vowel Because English does not define the vowel

sound (no ‘ä’, ‘ō’, etc), pronounciation can sound (no ‘ä’, ‘ō’, etc), pronounciation can depend on your origins (change even within a depend on your origins (change even within a

country)country)Try saying Try saying Bus, Now,Bus, Now, And what about And what about Garage, Tomato, Garage, Tomato,

MargarineMargarineAnd of course don’t forget words which have And of course don’t forget words which have

kept their French pronounciation:kept their French pronounciation:Bouquet, Gateaux, Buffet, CoupBouquet, Gateaux, Buffet, Coup,,

Checking English in Checking English in sentencessentences

‘‘About 50 years, a lot of recurrent difficulties About 50 years, a lot of recurrent difficulties in science education were encountered in in science education were encountered in

many countries’.many countries’.

For about 50 years, many countries have For about 50 years, many countries have encountered recurring difficulties in science encountered recurring difficulties in science

education.education.

‘‘This order of introduction of chemistry This order of introduction of chemistry issues is reversed to the order given in usual issues is reversed to the order given in usual

textbooks’.textbooks’.

This approach to chemistry issues is the This approach to chemistry issues is the reverse to that usually given in textbooks.reverse to that usually given in textbooks.

Use of ‘a’ and ‘the’Use of ‘a’ and ‘the’This is difficult and unless you are This is difficult and unless you are aa native native

English speaker it is almost impossible to handle. English speaker it is almost impossible to handle.

And even then, native speakers will disagree with And even then, native speakers will disagree with each other – especially Americans and each other – especially Americans and the the English English

(with Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders (with Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans in between).and South Africans in between).

Generally, include ‘a’ for something- in Generally, include ‘a’ for something- in general in the singular.general in the singular.

Generally, include ‘the’ for something Generally, include ‘the’ for something ‘specific’ and definitely, if the specificity is ‘specific’ and definitely, if the specificity is

to be emphasised.to be emphasised.

Use of ‘the’ Use of ‘the’ neededneeded

• Mathematics is still widely used by the Mathematics is still widely used by the science.science.

• Put to testPut to test

Use of ‘a’ neededUse of ‘a’ needed• Biology is science subjectBiology is science subject• Collect a data Collect a data

• But Chemistry and Biology are science But Chemistry and Biology are science subjectssubjects

3. Nouns such as 3. Nouns such as ‘‘civicscivics, , mathematicsmathematics and ‘and ‘news’news’ require singular verbs.require singular verbs.

4. Nouns such as 4. Nouns such as ‘‘scissors’ , ‘tweezers’ scissors’ , ‘tweezers’ andand ‘ ‘trousers‘trousers‘ require plural verbs. require plural verbs. (There are two parts)(There are two parts)

5. Collective nouns are words that imply 5. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person/thing, but that more than one person/thing, but that are considered singular and take a are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: singular verb, such as: ‘‘groupgroup, , workwork, , classclass, , and family’and family’..

6. What about data? 6. What about data? Is it data is, or data Is it data is, or data are ?are ?

Take you pick, but be consistent. Data Take you pick, but be consistent. Data is is

actually plural (singular is datum), but actually plural (singular is datum), but datum datum

is virtually never used.is virtually never used.

Checking the English in Checking the English in sentencessentences

‘‘Sensors and signal converters are Sensors and signal converters are used in laboratory works for making used in laboratory works for making

different measurements that offer the different measurements that offer the possibility to enter information in possibility to enter information in

computer and process it with the help computer and process it with the help of special software.of special software.

Points Points workwork not works (line 2) not works (line 2) into theinto the computer (line 4) computer (line 4) datadata rather than it (line 4) rather than it (line 4)

The unnecessary use of pluralThe unnecessary use of plural

• So umbrellaology is not a science, but So umbrellaology is not a science, but could be one part of the researches of could be one part of the researches of some social science.some social science.

• Practical works help to provide the better Practical works help to provide the better learning results.learning results.

Incorrect English wordIncorrect English word• This results in quicker development of This results in quicker development of

areas connected to nature conservation.areas connected to nature conservation.

Choice of wordsChoice of wordsIn speech we tend to use simpler words (which are In speech we tend to use simpler words (which are often Germanic in origin) and prefer Germanic clausal often Germanic in origin) and prefer Germanic clausal

verbs – verbs – get up, go out, get offget up, go out, get off (a bus). (a bus). In writing we make much more frequent use of French In writing we make much more frequent use of French

origin words – origin words – arise, exit, alightarise, exit, alight. . In writing we try to avoid some terms - ‘got’, ‘have to’, In writing we try to avoid some terms - ‘got’, ‘have to’, or ending a sentence with a preposition (if we can), or ending a sentence with a preposition (if we can),

ExamplesExamples: : Where are you going to? Where are you going to? (Where are you going?)(Where are you going?)Where have you come from ? Where have you come from ? (From where have you (From where have you

come?)come?)

I have to write this essay I have to write this essay (I am required to write(I am required to write this essay)this essay)

Wrong preposition/ Wrong preposition/ conjunctionsconjunctions• For example the theory of the Sun being For example the theory of the Sun being inin

the centre of the Solar System.the centre of the Solar System.• Also, in science the results of the tests are Also, in science the results of the tests are

depending depending ofof the person doing these tests the person doing these tests• The world is beyond The world is beyond ofof our ability to senseour ability to sense• InIn my point of view, these are three main my point of view, these are three main

reasons why people are trying to learn more reasons why people are trying to learn more about the nature.about the nature.

• Charles Darwin didn’t investigate all Charles Darwin didn’t investigate all the the nature to make his theory of evolution.nature to make his theory of evolution.

Active and Passive Active and Passive VoiceVoice

Choosing Active VoiceChoosing Active VoiceIn most non-scientific writing situations, In most non-scientific writing situations, activeactive voice is preferablevoice is preferable Even in scientific writing, Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice, or use of passive voice in overuse of passive voice, or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences, can cause readers long and complicated sentences, can cause readers to lose interest, or to become confused. to lose interest, or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always—clearer and more direct than those in always—clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.passive voice.

Passive (more wordy); Active (more concise)Passive (more wordy); Active (more concise)

Choosing Passive VoiceChoosing Passive Voice

The passive voice makes sense when the The passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is agent performing the action is obvious, obvious, unimportant, or unknown,unimportant, or unknown,or when a writer wishes to postpone or when a writer wishes to postpone mention of the agent until the last part of mention of the agent until the last part of the sentence, or to avoid mentioning the the sentence, or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. agent at all.

The passive voice is effective in such The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it circumstances because it highlights the highlights the actionaction and what is and what is acted uponacted upon rather than rather than the agent performing the action.the agent performing the action.

Active/passive examplesActive/passive examples (omission (omission

of agent doing the action)of agent doing the action) • The warden The warden is notifying is notifying police that three police that three

prisoners have escaped.prisoners have escaped.• Police Police are being notified are being notified that three prisoners that three prisoners

have escaped.have escaped.

• Researchers successfully Researchers successfully performed performed a new a new experimental technique yesterday.experimental technique yesterday.

• A new experimental technique A new experimental technique was performed was performed successfully yesterday.successfully yesterday.

• "Authorities "Authorities make make rules to be broken," he said rules to be broken," he said defiantly. defiantly.

• "Rules "Rules are made are made to be broken," he said defiantly.to be broken," he said defiantly.

Avoid starting a sentence in active Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.voice and then shifting to passive.

Many customers Many customers found found the coffee too the coffee too bitter to drink, but it bitter to drink, but it was was still still ordered ordered

frequently.frequently.Many customers Many customers found found the coffee too the coffee too

bitter to drink, but they still bitter to drink, but they still ordered ordered it it frequently.frequently.

He He tried tried to act cool when he slipped on to act cool when he slipped on the ice, but he the ice, but he was was still still laughed at laughed at by the by the

other students.other students.He He tried tried to act cool when he slipped on to act cool when he slipped on

the ice, but the other students still the ice, but the other students still laughed at laughed at him.him.