Chabbott y Ramírez Desarrollo English

7/24/2019 Chabbott y Ramrez Desarrollo English

1/31

CHAPTER 7

Development and Education

COLETTE CHABBOTT

FRANCISCO O. RAMIREZ

INTRODUCTION

A positive relationship between education and economic, political, and cultural developmentis widel assumed throu!hout much o" the modern and moderni#in! world, et research su!

!ests that this relationship is problematic$ %he problem has two aspects$ First, althou!h man

empirical studies show a positive relationship between man "orms o" education and indi

vidual economic, political, and cultural development, the e""ects o" education on development

at the collective level are ambi!uous$ Second, at the same time evidence o"this "or ambi!uit

has been mountin!, "aith in education as the "ulcrum "or individual and "or collective develop

ment has been !rowin! in the "orm o" international education con"erences and declarations

and national&level education policies$

%his chapter e'plores two aspects o" the problem in distinct was$ First, in the sectionson the e""ects o" education on development and the e""ects o" development on education, we

review the empirical relationship between education and development, drawin! on several

decades o" cross&national studies$ Second, in Section (, we e'amine the wa education as an

instrument to attain national pro!ress and )ustice has been produced and di""used via develop

ment discourse, development or!ani#ations, and development pro"essionals$ Althou!h the tpes

o" education prescribed varied "rom one decade to another, throu!hout the post-*orld *ar ++

period, education "or all became an increasin!l important component in the !lobal blueprint

"or development$

ow did this blueprint cometo be so widel disseminated- *e su!!est that two ration&

Co.E%%E C,A//O%% School o"Education, Stan"ord 0niversit, Stan"ord, Cali"ornia 1(234&2315$Present address:

/oard on International Comparative Studies in Education, National Academies o" Science, *ashin!ton, 6C 73338

FRANCisco O$ RAMIREZ School o" Education, Stan"ord 0niversit, Stan"ord, Cali"ornia 1(234&2315$

Handbook of the Sociology of Education, edited b Maureen %$ allinan$ 9luwer Academic:;lenum ;ublishers,

New


2/31

164 Colette Chaott and !"anci#co O$ Rami"e%

ales plaed a ma)or role in buttressin! con"idence in the relationship between education and

national development$ %he "irst constructs education as an investment in human capital, which

will increase the productivit o"labor and contribute to economic !rowth and development at

the societallevel$ %his rationale is closel tied to !lobal norms about science, pro!ress, mate

rial well&bein!, and economic development$ %he second !eneral rationale constructs educa

tion as a human ri!ht, ima!inin! education as the prime mechanism "or human bein!s to better

themselves and to participate "ull in the econom, politics, and culture o"their societies$ %his

rationale is tied to notions o" )ustice, e>ualit, and individual human ri!hts$

Our assessment o" the literature on education and development leads us to two !eneral

conclusions$ First, there are man !ra areas re!ardin! the evidence on the lin=s between

development and education$ Sweepin! assertions re!ardin! the positive or ne!ative e""ects o"

one on the other miss the mar=$ %his is slowlbut steadil reco!ni#ed in calls to move beond

the earlier either:or "ormulations and attempts to delineate the conditions under which lin=s

between development and education are most li=el to occur ?Fuller @ Rubinson, +117

Rubinson @ /rown, +11(B$ Moreover, man current studies !o beond e'aminin! the recipro

caties between educational e'pansion and increased wealth all sorts o" research issues re

!ardin! the >ualit o" education and the >ualit o" li"e itsel" are on the rise$ %he scope o" the

development and education literature has e'panded$

owever, the second !eneral conclusion is that much con"idence in the positive ties be

tween education and development persists in the development practitioner literature and in

public discourse about education and development$ Sociolo!ical attention needs to be di

rected to the power o" the ta=en&"or&!ranted, that is, to the institutionali#ation o" di""use be

lie"s, practices, and routines re!ardin! the lin=s between development and education ?Meer,

+188B$ Attention also needs to be directed to the social e""ects o" widel di""used, ta=en-"or

!ranted notions about education and development$ %hese e""ects include the proli"eration and

spread o" development discourse, development or!ani#ations, and development pro"ession

als, all o" which celebrate and promote e'panded visions o" education as human capital andas

a human ri!ht ?Chabbott, +115B$ %hese visions have a si!ni"icant impact on what educational

statistics are collected, how development pro!ress is measured, and what education policies

nation&states are encoura!ed to adopt$

%o reiterate, these two !eneral conclusions constitute an interestin! parado'D despite

!rowin! scholarl ac=nowled!ment that our understandin! o"the lin= between education and

development contains man !ra areas, public con"idence in these lin=s, mani"est in national

policies and in intemational declarations, continues to mount$ Itis this parado' that motivates

our review o" the literature and our delineation o" new research directions in the stud o"

development and education$

E!!ECT& O! EDUCATION ON DE'E(OP)ENT

%his section e'amines the e""ects o" education on economic, political, and cultural develop

ment$ *e assess evidence o" both individual and societallevel e""ects$

Economic Development

%he impact o" education on the econom is o"ten studied b considerin! the e""ect o" educa

tion on individual productivit or its in"luence on national economic !rowth$ %he idea that


3/31

increased e'posure to school would increase productivit is at the heart o" human capital

theor$ %he pioneerin! wor= o" Schult# ?+152B su!!ested that the ac>uisition o" more school

in! involved more than mere enhanced consumption$ umans were increasin!l investin! in

the development o" their co!nitive capacities and s=ills, and these investments, in the "orm o"

additional schoolin! attained, had pao""s both "or them and "or their societies$ %hese invest

ments were conceptuali#ed as investments in human capital "ormation toda human capital is

a pervasive "eature o" development discourse, apoint to which we return in the third section$

Much economic research "ocuses on the relationship between schoolin! and productivit at

the individuallevel o" analsis.Itis to these studies that we now turn, be"ore reviewin! anal

ses at the societallevel$

Almost "rom the outset o" this research pro!ram, wa!es were u sed as apro' "or produc

tivit ?6enison, +157B$ iven core economic assumptions about labor mar=ets and the e""i

cienc o" resource allocation, the premise that more productive wor=ers would be compensated with !reater wa!es seemed plausible$ %hese assumptions are consistent with the premises

underlin! the "unctionalist theor o" social strati"ication$ %here are indeed man empirical

studies showin! the e'pected positive associations between schoolin! and wa!es in man

di""erent countries ?;sacharopoulos & *oodhall, +14but see .und!reen, +185, "or contrar

evidenceB$ Rate&o"&return studies have become a staple o" the economics o" education, and

more recentl, o" its application to research in less developed countries$ Much o" this research

e""ort see=s to distin!uish between the prGvate and the social returns o" di""erent levels o"

schoolin! ?primar v$ hi!her educationB$ Since the +183s, ;sacharopoulos ?+182, +11B has

ar!ued that the prGvate and social returns are !reater "or primar education rather than "orhi!her education and that this di""erence is !reater in the less developed countries$ More re

cent research, however, su!!ests that rates o" return to tertiar education ma be hi!her than

rates "or lower levels o" education, particularl durin! sustained periods o" industriali#ation

?Carno, +11 Roo, Nan, @ Carno, +112B$

%hese !enerali#ations have o"ten lead to polic recommendations "or less developed

countries as to where investments in education would be most "ruit"ul$ As "urther studies

called "or more >uali"ied !enerali#ations, polic recommendations were altered or reversed ?see

discussion o" discourse in HOn Mechanisms "or 6i""usionHB$ For e'ample, vocational schoolin!

was recommended b donor or!ani#ations in the +143s and +153s and then the recommendation was scrapped, resultin! in sorne serious costs to the client countries ?Samo"", +114B$

*ithin this research tradition several studies have e'amined the e""ects o" schoolin! on

the productivit o" women, comparin! their wa!es with those o" less educated women as well

as with men with varin! de!rees o" schoolin!$ As is the case with the earlier studies o"

education and productivit amon! men, these relativel newer in>uiries do not report identi

cal results across countries$ /ut here too sorne !enerali#ations are warrantedD as was the case

with respect tomen, there are private and social rates o" return to womens schoolin! ?Schult#,

+112B$ %his is true in both the more developed and the less developed countries ?Strom>uist,

+11B$ In sorne countries the rate o" social and:or prGvate return to !irls schoolin! is actuall!reater than "or bos schoolin!$ %hese "indin!s have been emphasi#ed in man !overnment

reports )usti"in! investments in womens schoolin!, leadin! to a ma)or push in the +113s "or

!irls education pro)ects in developin! countries$

%he dominant conceptuali#ation and measurement o" productivit in these studies has

not !one unchallen!ed$ .abor mar=et economists have noted the de!ree to which schoolin!

credentials ma distort the mar=et, thereb wea=enin! the tie between productivit and wa!es

?Carno, +114 9ni!ht & Sabot, +18B$ %o the e'tent that this is true, increased worldwide

emphasis on "ormal schoolin! ma increase the tendenc to use "ormal de!rees as certi"ica&


4/31

166 Colette Chabbott and Francisco O$ Ramire#

tion "or those see=in! )obs, thereb increasin! individual returns to schoolin! without neces

saril increasin! individual productivit ?Collins, +18+B$ Sorne empirical studies >uestion an

direct evidence o" a positive schoolin! e""ect on productivit ?/er!, +183B, but more recent

research on "armer education and on "armer productivit ields positive results ?.oc=heed,

Jamison, & .au, +1 see also oni!s K+115L stud o" education and pro"itabilit amon!

Jamaican microentrepreneursB$%he broader sociolo!ical criti>ue is that simpl e'pandin! the

number o" individuals with more schoolin! does not necessaril result in an increase in more

productive )obs ?Collins, +181B$ From this perspective schoolin! is primaril a sortin! and

allocatin! machine schools are or!ani#ations o" strati"ication, with the more credentialed

outcompetin! the less credentialed "or the better pain! )obs ?Sprin!, +187B$

None o" this implies that the more credentialed are necessaril more productive$ *hen

the societ is conceptuali#ed as a more closed sstem, the process is ima!ined as a simple repro

duction o" the hierarchical order, as social elites are more able to secure educational advanta!es

"or their children ?/owles @ intis, +185but see Olnec= @ /ilis, +13B$ *hen a more open

societ is ima!ined, much intense competition and con"lict ensues between social classes,

between ethnic and reli!ious !roups, and more recentl between women and men$ None o"

this, however, was hpothesi#ed to lead to increased productivit$ %he credential societ was not to

be con"used with a moreproductiveone ?Collins, +181B$%hus, the optimism o" an earlier era

!ave wa to more s=eptical and more criticaoutloo=s in the sociolo! o" development and

educa tion$ %his chan!e in tone was even more pronounced when e'aminin! the e""ects o"

education on political and cultural development, apoint emphasi#ed later in this chapter$

A more recent appraisal o" the literature ma=es e'plicit a methodolo!ical point implied

in sorne o" the earlier criti>ues and o""ers a "resh re"ormulation o" the central >uestion$ %he

methodolo!ical point is a strai!ht"orward levels&o"&analsis pointD even i" it were established

that more schoolin! resulted in !reater individual productivit, e""ects o" schoolin! on pro

ductivit at the individuallevel do not necessaril lead to economic !rowth at the societal

level$ %o arrive at the latter in"erence, one needs to compare societies, not individuals ?see the

papers in Meer & annan, +181B$ %he brain drain literature partiall su!!ests what

happens to societies that have not been able to create more productive )obs "or their more

productive wor=ers$ %he substantive re"ormulations call "or the identi"ication o" the

conditions under which educational e'pansion leads to economic !rowth ?Fuller &

Rubinson, +117 anushe=

& 9im, +115B$ In what "ollows we "irst e'amine cross&national studies o" the in"luence o"

educational e'pansion on economic !rowth and then we turn to studies that speci" the e""ects

o" sorne "orms o" schoolin!$

%he stud o" arbison and Meers ?+15(B was amon! the "irst to underta=e cross&na

tional e""orts in this domain$ %his stud reported a positive association between a countrs

level o" educational enrollments and economic wealth and emphasi#ed the stron!er economic

e""ect o" secondar education$ /ecause the stud relied on a cross&sectional desi!n it could

not ascertain the direction o" causalit, thereb raisin! the chic=en and e!! >uestionD does

economic development lead to educational e'pansion, or vice versa ?Anderson & /owman,

+185B- Moreover, earlier research was o"ten bivariate in character or did not include a su""i

cient number o" reasonable control variables in the analses$ In the +13s and the +113s,

however, cross&national researchers have attac=ed this issue utili#in! multivariate analses o"

panel data$ %hese studies show that primar and secondar schoolin! have stron!er e""ects on

economic development than hi!her education ?/enavot, +117b Meer & annan, +181B$

Moreover, the economic e""ects o" e'panded schoolin! seemed stron!er "or poorer countries$

Interestin!l enou!h this !enerali#ation is consistent with the main in"erence in arbison and

Meers emphasi#in! the wea=er economic e""ect o" hi!her education$ A similar conclusion is


5/31

drawnb researchers underta=in! a time series analsis o"the economic conse>uences o"the

e'pansion o" hi!her education in the 0nited States ?*alters @ Rubinson, +12B$

In these analses the independent variables o" interest do not distin!uish between tpes

o" schoolin! or curricula or between the di""erent populations under!oin! !reater schoolin!.If

sorne tpes o" schoolin! more directl contribute to economic !rowth than other tpes, isolat

in! their e""ects re>uires more re"ined measures than simple statistics estimatin! secondar or

tertiar enrollments as apercent o" the tpical a!e cohort "or this level o" schoolin!$ *or=in!

with di""erent research desi!ns and methods o" analsis, severastudies su!!est a common

and positive economic outcome o" more scienti"ic and technical "orros o" schoolin!$ Focusin!

on lower levels o" schoolin! in both France and erman, sorne studies indicate that the e'

pansion o" more technical trac=s had distinctive positive e""ects not "ound in the !rowth o" the

more classical trac=s ?arnier & a!e, +113 arnier, a!e, & Fuller, +11 a!e &

arnier,

+113 +117B$ %he researchers reasoned that the s=ills learned in these trac=s were more rel

evant to the needs o" the econom than the !reater emphasis on hi!h culture in the classical

trac=s$ Another stud e'amined the e""ects o" varin! curricular emphases in primar educa

tion on economic development$ %his analsis shows that, net o" other in"luences, a stron!er

emphasis on science in the currGculum positivel in"luences economic development ?/enavot,

+117aB$ Shi"tin! "rom lower levels o" schoolin! to hi!her education, other cross&national in

vesti!ations "ocused on the in"luence o" di""erent "ields o" stud in hi!her education on the

econom$ %he =e cross&national "indin! is that !reater enrollments in science and en!ineer

in! positivel in"luence economic development ?Ramire# & .ee, +114 Scho"er, Ramire#,& Meer, +118B$

%a=en as a whole these "indin!s su!!est the plausibilit o" =nowled!e claims lin=in!

scienti#ation in education and the !rowth o" the econom$ owever, much more research is

needed to test the implications o" the !eneral claim$ Note, "or e'ample, that a time series

analsis o" the economic e""ect o" science and en!ineerin! !raduates in the 0nited States

"ailed to "ind a si!ni"icant impact ?*alters & O6onnell, +113B$ Furthermore, Scho"er and asso

ciates ?+118B "ound that sorne aspects o" presti!ious science activities, such as research and pat

ents, have a ne!ative economic e""ect$ Finall, althou!h man o"these studies did not include

a si!ni"icant number o" developin! countries, the are sometimes used to )usti" "airl e'plicitpolic recommendations "or developin! countries "rom international development or!ani#a

tions ?described in HOn %ranslatin! International 6evelopment into Educational 6iscourseHB$

A second direction in this domain disa!!re!ates the educational e""ectsb !ender$ /enavot

?+11B, "or e'ample, shows that womens share o" secondar education positivel in"luences

the econom whereas the "emale tertiar enrollment variable "ails to do so$ Further studies

ma estGmate the e""ects o" "emale and male enrollments in di""erent "ields in hi!her educa

tion$ %his research direction would inte!rate the !rowin! interest in isolatin! science e""ects

with the e'pandin! "ocus on !ender&related outcomes$ A recent cross&national stud o" sci

ence education at the secondar level concluded that !irls do not necessaril have apredisposition a!ainst science$ %he participation and achievement o" !irls in secondar science varGes

widel between countries ?Caillods, ottelmann&6uret, & .ewin, +115 a similar "indin! "or

math achievement is reported in /a=er & Jones, +112B$

Political Development

%he same optimism re!ardin! the economic bene"its o" e'panded schoolin! also led to an


6/31

emphasis on political !ains$ One ma)or line o" in>uir "ocused on the e""ects o" schoolin! on


7/31

Development and Education 7

the political =nowled!e, values, and attitudes o" individuals$ Studies o" the political sociali#a

tion e""ects o" education re"lect this research tradition$ A more macrosociolo!ical approach

directl e'amined the e""ects o" education on political democrac and on national inte!ration$

At both the individual and societallevels o" analsis, the initial wor= seemed to be !rounded

in a much !reater con"idence in the trans"ormative powers o" schoolin! than later studies$

A ma)or !enerali#ation "rom the political sociali#ation literature is that individuals with

more schoolin! were more li=el to =now more about their political sstems and to have more

positive political values and attitudes$ %he latter were o"ten de"ined as participator, demo

cratic, and tolerant values and attitudes$ Comparative studies o"political sociali#ation include

the pioneerin! wor= o" Almond and uestions about earlier !enerali#ations$ *eil ?+14B,

"or e'ample, showed that the lin= between schoolin! attained and political tolerance varies

across countries$ In countries with a more authoritarian le!ac or re!ime, better educated

people are not more politicall tolerant$ %his =ind o" "indin! su!!ests that in this domain o"

in>uir, one should also eschew un>uali"ied !enerali#ations$ %he political conte't within which

schools operate ma be an important contin!enc in ascertainin! the relationship between

education and politicall democratic belie"s and values$

%hese studies raise sorne o" the same issues o" conceptuali#ation and measurement as

those earlier mentioned with respect to schoolin! and productivit$ %he reliance on paper

and&pencil tests as assessments o" democratic orientations can be challen!ed perhaps more

educated actors are better prepared to "i!ure out the correct responses and there"ore in"late

their scores$ %his criticism, however,be!s the >uestion asto wh the more educated are better

able to ascertain the more normativel acceptable political response$

Even i" we did accept the "ace validit o" the earlier "indin!s, the levels&o"&analsis ar!u

ment made earlier with respect to schoolin! and economic development applies here, too$

%hat is, one cannot in"er the positive e""ects o" e'panded education on political democrac on

the basis o" individual data on schoolin! and values$ %he impact o" education on the sstemic

rules o" the !ame that constitute political democrac need to be directl studied, not in"erred"rom individual&levedata$

Much comparative theori#in! ar!ued or presupposed that an educated citi#enr was es

sential "or the establishment and maintenance o" a political democrac$ In this conte't the

0nited States was o"ten invo=ed as a countr that both e'panded schoolin! and political de

mocrac relativel earl in its histor ?.ipset, +152B$ Comparative evidence supportin! this

!enerali#ation was "ound "or both more developed ?Cutri!ht, +151B and less developed coun

tries ?Adelman @ Morris, +182B$ %hese and other studies tpicall emploed cross&sectional

research desi!ns, raisin! the same set o" issues !enerated in response to the earl wor= on


8/31

education and economic development$ 0sin! the same indicators o" political democrac ear

lier anal#edbut e'tendin! these measures over time, one stud showed that participation in

lower levels o" schoolin! ?but not in hi!her educationB positivel a""ected political democrac

?Ramire#, Rubinson, @ Meer, +182B$ owever, a more recent stud with more and better

measures o"political democrac "ound si!ni"icant e""ects o" hi!her education ?/enavot, +117bB$

%his stud also shows that the e""ects o" education var across time periods, "urther su!!estin!

the more conditional character o" the relationship between educational e'pansion and politi

cal democrac$

Other studies have "ocused on political order and national inte!ration$ Sorne scholars

"eared that a bloated sstem o" hi!her education would result in political instabilit cross

national analses showed no such e""ects ?urr, +18+B$ %here is also no evidence that educa

tional e'pansion in"luences the tpe o"political re!ime in a countr ?%homas, Ramire#, Meer,

&obbalet, +181B$ A more >ualitative assessment o" the role o" education in promotin! national inte!ration in Malasia concluded that education has "ailed to bolster national inte!ra

tion ?Sin!h & Mu=her)ee, +112B, in star= contrast with the enormous "aith placed in the na

tion&buildin! potential o" education in the +143s and +153s ?see the papers in Coleman, +154B$

Cultu"al Development

%hou!h closel related to studies o"both economic and political development, modemi#ation

theor and research also "ocused on "orms o" personal development that were related to cultural development$ Modemi#ation theorists drew on ;arsons ?+148B theories o" structural

di""erentiation to e'plain how institutions multipl and the simple structures o" traditional

societ become more comple' in response to chan!es in technolo! and:or values$ For most

o" these theorists, modemi#ation was rou!hl e>uivalent to *esterni#ation$

McClelland ?+15+B, "or e'ample, ar!ued that child&rearin! practices tied to *estern no

tions o" individualism and pro!ress !ive rise to a !reater number o" individuals with hi!h

levels o" need achievement, which in tum produce an achievin! societ, drivenb the need to

achieve ever hi!her levels o" output and productivit$ %hese child&rearin! practices and similar

e""orts in schoollead to the "ormation o" personal modernit, a condition characteri#ed b ahi!h sense o" optimism, e""icac, and sel"&direction ?In=eles & Sirow, +12 In=eles &

Smith,

+18(B$ Severacase studies sou!ht to document the passin! o" traditional societ in partas a

"unction o" e'panded schoolin!$ More recent wor= e'aminin! the e""ect o" varin! tpes o"

educational e'periences on personal modemit amon! Al!erian students shows that more modem

orientations are positivel in"luenced both b instruction in French and b "ield o" stud, with

science students e'hibitin! more modem outloo=s than those in the humanities ?Co""man, +117B$

%his stud su!!ests that not all educational e'periences ma have the same modemi#ation

conse>uences$ *hereas literac ma be in sorne !eneric sense moderni#in!, it ma also becompatible with personal orientations >uite di""erent "rom those depicted b the theor$

*hether moderni#ation could be distin!uished "rom *esterni#ation was a recurrin! is

sue in this literature$ Just as there were those who ar!ued that there were multiple paths to

economic development, sorne researchers contended that there were diverse personal orienta

tions and institutional arran!ements compatible with underta=in! moderni#ation$ Addition

all, )ust as a causal lin= between more schoolin! and both more productive and more demo

cratic individuals did not necessaril add up to economic !rowth and political democrac,

respectivel, so too a tie between e'panded education and more modem persons would not


9/31

su""ice to )usti" causal in"erences at the societal leve$ Cross&national comparisons at the


10/31

societallevel were needed$ %he literature contains earl e""orts to conceptuali#e societal mod

emi#ation and the contribution o" schoolin! to societal modemi#ation ?/lac=, +158 Eisenstadt,

+152B$ owever, the concept proved to be more comple' than either economic development

or political democrac$ Few studies more attempted directl assess the impact o" education on

societal modemit$

One obvious avenue o" research involves the in"luence o" education on ine>ualit, be

cause part o" what it means to be a modem societ is to be a more open and, thuspresumabl,

amore e!alitarian societ$ 6espite a plethora o" cross&national studies on income ine>ualit,

little wor= has e'amined whether there is less income ine>ualit in countries with more e'

panded education$ One unpublished stud su!!ests no e""ects ?Shanahan, +11(B this "indin!

is consistent with more structural theories o" social ine>ualit ?/oudon, +18(B$ .ittle wor= has

directl e'amined the in"luence o" education on other "orms o" ine>ualit "or e'ample, be

tween women and men$ At the individuallevel o" analsis, one stud shows that more educated people are not necessaril more supportive o" !ovemment e""orts to reduce ine>ualit

between men and women ?6avis & Robinson, +11+B$ More societal&level analses indicate

that the e'pansion o" womens share o" hi!her education positivel in"luences their share o"

the paid labor "orce ?*eiss, Ramire#, @ %rac, +185B$ It is o"ten assumed that womens e'

panded access to education will have broad, positive development e""ects, but much more

research in this area is needed$

Summar

At the individuallevel o" analsis, we "ind evidence that schoolin! positivel in"luences wa!es

but debate continues on whether wa!es are an ade>uate measure o" productivit$ %here is also

support "or the hpothesis that more educated individuals are more politicall active, thou!h

the e""ects o" schoolin! on political tolerance are more variable$ .astl, more schooled indi

viduals e'hibit sorne values in line with modemi#ation theor, but whether this is simpl

evidence o" !reater *estemi#ation in !eneral remains unsettled$

None o"these "indin!s, however, warrant societal&level in"erences$ 6irect cross&

national comparisons have increasin!l been underta=en$ *hereas earlier wor=emphasi#ed !lobal educational e""ects, more recent studies distin!uish between the e""ects o"

di""erent tpes o" schoolin! and those brou!ht about b di""erent =inds o" populations

underta=in! education$ %here is partial support "or ar!uments emphasi#in! the economic

bene"its o" e'panded school in!, especiall more technical "orms$ In contrast, the political

or cultural conse>uences o" educational e'pansion and the educational source o" political or

cultural development remain to be e'plored$

EFFEC%S OF 6EE.O;MEN% ON E60CA%ION

%he chic=en and e!! >uestion re!ardin! the relationship between education and economic

development also applies to the was in which education a""ects political and cultural devel

opment$ ;erhaps education is more a conse>uence o" economic, political, and cultural devel

opment rather than its cause, or perhaps causation is reciproca$ Much o" this literature di

rectl operates at the societallevel, with the e'pansion o" the educational sstem as a main

dependent variable$ More recent studies "ocus on speci"ic aspects o" the educational sstem,

such as curricular emphases or speci"ic "ields o" stud, or on the access and attainment o"


11/31

speci"ic populations, such as women$ In what "ollows we "ocus primaril on these cross&na

tional studies$

Sorne o" the literature "ocuses on the rise and e'pansion o" mass schoolin! whereas

other studies deal with the "ormation and !rowth o" hi!her education$ .in=s between

schoolin! and mar=et "orces and between schoolin! and the state have also been anal#ed in

this research tradition$ %his review "irst considers studies o" mass schoolin!, then turns to

research on hi!her education$ *e cover onl studies in which educational outcomes are

e'amined as a "unction o" development variables$

)a## &choolin*

istoriansand

sociolo!ists increasin!l reco!ni#ethat the rise o"

mass schoolin! cannot beade>uatel accounted "or asan outcome o"industriali#ation ?Manes, +14 Ramire#, +118B$

%his !eneral observation is well illustrated in a case stud o" the rise o" mass schoolin! in

Sweden, a stud that reveals the compatibilit o" mass schoolin! with a preindustrial eco

nomic base ?/oli, +11B$ 6espite the popularit o" both more conservative and more radical

variants o" lo!ic o" industriali#ation ar!uments, historical evidence "ails to support the "a

vored causal claim that mass schoolin! arose as a "unction o" economic development$ Nor is

it the case that the e'pansion o" primar school enrollments is mainl driven b economic

development$ Cross&national multivariate analsis o" panel data shows that much primar

enrollment !rowth is unrelated to various measures o" economic development ?Meer, Ramire#,Rubinson, & /oli&/ennett, +188 Meer, Ramire#, & Sosal, +117B$ %hrou!hout the 73th

centur mass schoolin! has e'panded in more developed and in less developed countries$

An alternate set o" claims revolves around political "actors$ istorians and sociolo!ists

have lin=ed the rise o" mass schoolin! to the rise o" the nation&state ?/endi', +15( Reisner,

+178B$ Mass schoolin! "or the production o"loal citi#ens is indeed a theme in the rise o" mass

schoolin!$ owever, there is no evidence that the more inte!rated nation&states were the ones

that earl on launched mass schoolin! ?andas noted in the prior section, the success o" mass

schoolin! in promotin! national inte!ration has been challen!edB$ Nor is a simple democratic

stor plausible, as mass schoolin! emer!ed in both more democratic and more authoritarianre!imes in North America and in *estern Europe in comparable time periods ?Ramire# @

/oli, +18B$ %he a"orementioned cross&national analses o" primar educational e'pansion

also "ailed to show convincin! political and societal moderni#ation e""ects$

In the post&*orld *ar 11 era the commitment to e'pand mass schoolin! cuts across all

sorts o" national boundaries and socioeconomic "ormations$ %he mi'ed evidence notwith

standin!, there is much o""icial and popular con"idence in the trans"ormative powers o" school

in!$ %here is also much worldwide consensus on the ri!ht o" all to schoolin!$ %he erosion o"

primar enrollments in this countr or in that re!ion can thus be discussed as both an eco

nomic anda moral crisis ?Fuller & eneman, +11B, a crisis that increasin!l commandsthe attention o" both national authorities and transnational or!ani#ations$ %his point is re&

e'am ined in the section on translatin! international development into educational discourse$

%hese "indin!s ma be interpreted alon! more historicist accounts o" the rise o" mass

schoolin! ?see, "or e'ample, man o" the chapters in Man!an, +11(B or, alternatel, "rom more

!enerali#in! sociolo!ical perspectives that emphasi#e the role o" transnational "orces$ %he

historical approach su!!ests that, via multiple paths, di""erent economies, polities, and civil

societies conver!ed on the value o" e'pandin! mass schoolin!$ In contrast, macrosociolo!ists

have postulated that a sin!le model o" pro!ress and )ustice "ormulated at the world level


12/31

contributes to commonalities in mass schoolin! outcomes in otherwise diverse societies$ %he

in"luence o" these models tri!!ered education as a nation&buildin! pro)ect, >uite apart "rom its

actual impact on nation buildin! and on related development activities$ In sorne societies,

thou!h, the nation was more directl mana!ed b the state whereas in others nation buildin!

involved social movements loosel coupled to the state bureaucrac$

In the +th and +1th centuries the role o" education within these emer!in! models was

much more modest than its present status$ Schoolin! "or the masses literall started as school

in! "or di""erentiated and subordinated strata, but increasin!l schools were ima!ined as bea

cons o" pro!ress and as pillars o" the republic$ %his elevated view o" schoolin! emer!ed even

as nation&states themselves emer!ed as ima!ined, pro!ress&see=in! communities o" solidarit

?Anderson, +11+B$ / the late +1th centur one could assert that the Franco&;russian *ar had

been won b the ;russian schoolmaster$ %hrou!hout the 73th centur the putative lin=s be

tween schoolin! and development !rew, less as a "unction o" varin! levels o" societal devel

opment and more as an outcome o" the common articulation o" world development blueprints

?Ramire#, +118B$ .ater we address the mechanisms throu!h which world development blue

prints are established and disseminated$

More recent studies have e'amined the impact o" varin! levels o" development on cur

ricular content and emphases ?9amens, Meer, & /enavot, +115B$ %hese studies show sur

prisin!l similar trends in curricular development, trends that seem unrelated to the re>uire

ments o" local economic or political structures orto the interests o" local masses or elites ?see

the chapter b McEneane and Meer in this volume "or a review o" this literature$B Other

cross&national research has "ocused on the chan!in! trends in curricular re>uirements "or !irlsand "or bos in primar and secondar schoolin!, trends that su!!est !ender de&di""erentiation

?Ramire# @ Cha, +113B$ %his stud also su!!ests that the !rowth o" mass schoolin! involved

e'pandin! schoolin! "or both bos and !irls$

Hi*he" Education

Earlier case studies o" the development o" hi!her education "ocused on cross&national or!ani

#ational and institutional di""erences and sou!ht to e'plain these di""erences ?Clar=, +188a,+188bB$ In these and in related cross&national studies, variations in levels o" political central

i#ation account "or variations in the de!ree to which hi!her education is re!ulated b state

authorities ?Ramire# & Rubinson, +181B$ ariations in academic !ovemance structures have

also been e'amined as a "unction o" both mar=et "orces and state le!acies$ In this tradition a

recent comparative stud concluded that sstems that stron!l di""erentiate at the secondar

level are more li=el to have lower de!rees o" di""erentiation at the hi!her level ?e$!$, er

manB than those with relativel low levels o" secondar school di""erentiation ?e$!$, the 0nited

States, *indol", +118B$ %his analsis also su!!ests that the response o" hi!her education e'

pansion to mar=et "orces ?business cclesB will be !reater in societies where mar=ets are morein"luential than state bureaucracies, moreso in the 0nited States than in erman$

%he e'pansion o" hi!her education has not alwas been re!arded as evidence o" pro!ress$

Not onl was there !reater s=epticism re!ardin! its positive e""ects, the elite character o"

hi!her education was ta=en "or !ranted until well a"ter *orld *ar ++$ Increasin!l, hi!her

education has become nearl a mass institution in sorne countries, whereas in others the aspi

ration to tum hi!her education into a more mass&"riendl settin! is evident$ %here is little

evidence that the e'pansion o" hi!her education is mainl a "unction o" the level o" economic

!rowth there is much evidence that the e'pansion o" womens share o" hi!her education is a


13/31

worldwide trend ?9ell, +11+B$ In less developed countries the newness o"the sstem o"hi!her

education positivel in"luences the !rowth o" womens share, aprocess that su!!ests that the

a!e o" a countr in"luences its receptivit to chan!in! world emphases on who should enter

into hi!her education ?/radle & Ramire#, +115B$

%here is also evidence that the content o"hi!her education is becomin! more diversi"ied

and more present&oriented in its covera!e$ 6espite their distinctive historical le!acies and

thic= cultural milieus, more universities and especiall the man newer ones seem more con

nected to both mass schoolin! institutions and to broad development concerns than in prior

eras ?Fran=, *on!, Meer, & 6uncan, +115B$ ;erhaps it is true that more peoples and more

societies are or!ani#in! themselves as i" there were Hno salvation outside hi!her educationH

?Shils, +18+B$ %his ma e'plain sorne o"the interna opposition to e'terna pressures to curb

the !rowth o" costl hi!her education orto de"ra sorne o" the costs with user "ees and tuition$

%hese pressures are o"ten applied b the *orld /an= as part o" pro!rams to rationali#e re

source allocations in the education sector$

&umma"+

%he emer!ence and e'pansion o" mass schoolin! is di""icult to account "or as a "unction o"

national or societal properties, such as the level o" development$ %he e'tent to which school

in! is more directl lin=ed to state bureaucracies or more open to mar=et "orces varies in lar!e

partas a conse>uence o" how much societ itsel" is mar=et& or state&driven$ owever, theworldwide character o" the e'pansion and the universalistic nature o" the rationale "or e'pan

sion su!!ests that e'ternal "actorspla a si!ni"icant role$

*e "ind more cross&national variation in the internal or!ani#ation o" hi!her education,

but here too the historical trend is in the direction o" !reater massi"ication$ %hus, massi"ication

o" both basic schoolin! and hi!her education in the 73th centur appear to be attuned to

transnational blueprints "or promotin! development throu!h education$ Individual&leve de

mands "or more schoolin! are on the rise, with issues o" !ender commandin! !reater attention

than in past decades$ Increasin!l the core debates hin!e on what constitutes >ualit educa

tion, which is increasin!l construed as the =e to development$*e are le"t with our parado'D to date, empirical research has been unable to establish

universal causallin=s between education writ lar!e and development, especiall at the soci

etal level o" analsis$ Nevertheless, b the end o" the 73th centur, common blueprints o"

education "or development appear in man international education declarations and covenants,

as well as in national strate!ies and policies$ %he ne't section "ocuses on the mechanisms

throu!h which these blueprints have been produced and di""used throu!hout the world$

)ECHANI&)& !OR DI!!U&ION

In the post-*orld *ar II era, common blueprints emphasi#in! education "or development

have emer!ed and have been rapidl disseminated$ %he result has been an increase in common

educational principies, policies, and even practices amon! countries with varin! national

characteristics$ Attempts to e'plain the !rowth o" educational isomorphism have empha&

%he term isomorphism means the tendenc "or collectivities en!a!ed in similar enrterprises to adopt similar

social structures ?6iMa!!io & ;owell, +12B$


14/31

si#ed coercion, imitation, and con"ormit to norms ?/erman, +12, +118 Meer, Na!el, @

Snder, +112B$ Missin! "rom most o" this literature is an analsis o" the mechanisms that

!enerate this isomorphism$ %his section addresses this !ap in the "ollowin! "our subsections$

First, we trace the translation o" abstract, rari"ied ideas about pro!ress and )ustice into rational

discourse about education and development at the !loballevel$ Second, we describe the "or

mali#ation o" that discourse into intemational development or!ani#ations$ Finall, we loo= at

the role o" intemational development pro"essionals in institutionali#in! and modi"in! that

discourse about education and development$

Fi!ure 8$+ outlines our ar!ument, startin! "rom the premise that world ideas about pro!ress

and )ustice translate into discourse about development and, more speci"icall, about education

and development$ %his rationali#in! discourse "acilitates the rise o"both networ=s o" develop

ment pro"essionals and intemational development or!ani#ations$ %hese pro"essionals and or&

*OR.6 C0.%IJRA. /rE;RIN%S OF 6EE.O;MEN%IN%ERNA%IONA.$$$ IN%ERNA%IONA. ...IN%ERNA%IONA. :

6ISCO0RSE ORANIZA%IONS ;ROFESSIONA.S

IN%ERNA%IONA. CONFERENCES

tIN%ERNA%IONA.

6EC.ARA%IONS, CONEN%IONS,

& FRAME*OR9S FOR AC%ION

tNA%IONA.;.ANS OF AC%ION

NA%IONA. EP;AN6E6

6EFINI%IONS OF

0MAN RI%S, CI%IZENSI;, & 6EE.O;MEN%

SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

+NA%IONA0.OCA. NA%IONA0.OCA.

NOs

.OCA0NA%IONA.AC%ION 0N6ER%A9EN CONSIS%EN%

*I% EP;AN6E6 6EFINI%IONS OF

0MAN RI%S, CI%IZENSI;, & 6EE.O;MEN

FI0RE 8$+$ Mechanisms "or carrin! blueprints o" development and education$


15/31

Development and Education 17,

!ani#ations, in tum, sharpen and standardi#e the discourseb coordinatin! activities that show

case discourse$ Intemational con"erences are one e'ample o" these tpes o" activities be

tween +1(( and +113, various 0nited Nations or!ani#ations sponsored more than +5 !lobal

con"erences on speci"ic areas o" development, such as "amil plannin!, water and sanitation,

and "ood$ Each o" these con"erences brou!ht to!ether not )ust national dele!ations but also

scores o" intemational development or!ani#ations$

/ the time o" the "irst Education "or All Con"erence in +113, standard products o" these

con"erences included nonbindin! declarations and "ramewor=s "or action$ %hese declarations

and their associated "ramewor=s tpicall invo=e the hi!hest ideals o" pro!ress and )ustice,

thereb ma=in! it practicall mandator "or nationa+ dele!ations to endorse them$ iven the

prominent role plaedb ideals in both the declaration and "ramewor= "or action, the national

plans developed subse>uent to the con"erence o"ten incorporate e'panded de"initions o" hu

man ri!hts, citi#enship, and development$

For most o" the postwar period this con"erence&declaration&national plan ccle contrib

uted toa si!ni"icant amount o" loose couplin! ?Meer et al$, +112 Na!el @ Snder, +11B

between on the one hand, national education policies produced in response to intemational

norms and, on the other hand, the implementation o" these policies at the subnationallevel$ In

recent ears, however, the !ovemmental intemational development or!ani#ations have in

creasin!l recruited and supported the participation o" intemational, natGonal, and local non

!overnmental or!ani#ations ?NOsB in international con"erences$ %he also support NO

e""orts to monitor the implementation o" declarations and national plans o" action at the na

tional and the locallevels$ *ith the advent o" new, ine'pensive electronic communications,

local NOs can publici#e natGonal plans at the national and the locallevel and can draw

intemational attention when national !overnments "ail to implement those plans ?see, "or e'

ample, Social *atch, +115B$ Fisher ?+11B su!!ested that this ma lead to ti!hter couplin!

between internatGonal norms and actGon at the subnationallevel$

%he "ollowin! subsections describe the process shown in Fi!ure 8$+ in !reater detail as it

relates to education and development$ Note that most arrows in Fi!ure 8$+ are two wa, indi

catin! that these nodes are reciprocaand iterative$ In !eneral, over time, lin=s between educa

tion and development !row ti!hter and more institutionali#ed the meanin! o" development

and, b e'tension, o" educatGon broadens and emphasis shi"ts "rom an e'clusive concern with

collectGve economic !rowth to incorporate individual ri!hts and )ustice$

E-pandin* Di#cou"#e and O"*ani%ation#

Since the end o" *orld *ar 11, a world culture emphasi#in! pro!ress and )ustice ?Fa!erlind &

Saha, +12 Meer, ;oll, %homas, & Ramire#, +118 Robertson, +117B produced a

ratGonali# in! discourse about development, and, over time, constructed a central role "or

education in the development process$ %he most le!itimate actors became nation&states

with broad na tional and individual development !oals and with individual citi#ens whose

education was lin=ed to their development and the development o" their nation&state$

An e'panded de"inition o" development derives "rom the 0nited Nations ?0NB +1(

0niversal 6eclaration o" uman Ri!hts ?0nited Nations, +1(B$ %he 6eclaratGon ma=es e'

plicit each individuals ri!hts toa mGnimum standard o" livin!but does not speci" how that

standard will be ensuredD HArticle 74, ;ara l. Everone has the ri!ht toa standard o" livin!

ade>uate "or the health and well bein! o" himsel" ?sicB and o" his "amil, includin! "ood,

clothin!, housin!, and medical care and necessar social services....H


16/31

.ater e""orts, however, to translate the nonbindin! +1( 6eclaration into bindin! inter

national covenants led to "urther elaboration o" the imperative "or states to provide "or indi

vidual development and o" the wealthier states to provide assistance to poorer states to help

them "ul"ill this responsibilit$Article ++, ;ara l$ %he States ;arties to the present Covenant reco!ni#e the ri!ht o" everone to an

ade>uate standard o" livin! ... and to the continuous improvement o" livin! conditions$ %he

States ;arties will ta=e appropriate steps to ensure the reali#ation o" this ri!ht, reco!ni#in! to this

e""ect the essential importance o"international co&operation based on "ree consent$ ?0nited Nations,

+155B

%hese documents helped to create a world o" developed and developin! countries, with

the "ormer encoura!ed to provide the latter with "orei!n aid or development assistance$ Ori!i

nall, multilateral or!ani#ations, such as the 0N, e'pected to be the main conduits o" this

development assistance$ %he advent o"the Cold *ar, however, circumvented the 0Ns coordinatin! mandate ?/lac=, +15B b the +143s, man *estem countries be!an channelin!

development assistance throu!h primaril reli!ious or!ani#ations and throu!hNOs alread

established in "ormer colonies, a practice that has !rown over time ?Or!ani#ation "or Eco

nomic Cooperation and 6evelopment, +1B$ In addition, in the +153s and +183s, most hi!h

income countries also "ormed bilateral !ovemmental development or!ani#ations$ As a result,

b the earl +113s, there were about 743 multilateral, (3 bilateral, and 4,333 intemational

non!ovemmental development or!ani#ations ?Chabbott, +115B$ Over time, as their densit

increased, these or!ani#ations became increasin!l bureaucrati#ed and pro"essionali#ed$ Al

thou!h initiall "ocused on sectors immediatel associated with economic production ?such asa!riculture or in"rastructureB, intemational development or!ani#ations eventuall broadened

into all social and economic sectors, includin! education$

In addition, both o" the documents e'cerpted previousl emphasi#e that the tar!et o"

development is not the national econom&the traditional Hwealth o" nationsH&buteverone$

Individual development became the means to national development and individual develop

ment was e>uated with individual education in man 0N documents$ %he best =nown o" these

include Article 75 o" the 0niversal 6eclaration o" uman Ri!hts ?0nited Nations, +1(B,

which de"ines education as a human ri!ht, and Articles +2 and +( o" the Intemational Cov

enant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Ri!hts ?0nited Nations, +155B, which e'pands onthis theme$ In +113 more than +43 nations accepted b acclamation the 6eclaration o"Educa

tion "or All, reiteratin! these ri!hts and conse>uences and rea""irmin! their belie" in the rela

tionship between development and education at the !lobal, national, and individuallevelsD

l. Recallin! that education is a "undamental ri!ht ...

7$ 0nderstandin! that education can help ensure a sa"er, healthier, more prosperous and

environmentall sound world, while simultaneousl contributin! to social, economic,

and cultural pro!ress, tolerance, and intemational cooperation

2$ 9nowin! that education is an indispensable =e to, thou!h nota su""icient condition

"or, personal and social improvement ...0NESCO +112B

Note that this passa!e sets out both normative ?education as a ri!htB and instrumental ?educa

tion as an essential input to developmentB ar!uments to promote education$ For most o" the

postwar period, instrumental ar!uments, o"ten drawin! on human capital constructs ?Schult#,

+152B, dominated liberal or!ani#ations ?i$e$, the *orld /an=, 0SAI6B$ In contrast, normative

ar!uments tended toprevail amon! more pro!ressive "unders ?i$e$, the 0N a!encies, the Nor

dic bilateral or!ani#ations /uchert, +11(B

Finall, the universalistic "ocus in the development discourse, that is, everone, increased


17/31

emphasis within international development a!encies on individual wel"are and on broad par&


18/31

+ Colette Chabbott and Francisco O$ Ramire#

ticipation in the development process$ / the late +13s, this translated into an increasin!

"ocus on previousl mar!inali#ed !roups, such as ethnic minorities and women$ Education

became a central theme in e""orts to raise these !roups to a hi!her status$

In summar, we have described the mechanismb which discourse at the !loballevel

about the nature o" development simultaneousl prompted the e'pansion o" discourse about

education and development, the "ormation o" international development or!ani#ations, and

the proli"eration o" activities to promote it, such as international con"erences$ %he ne't section

e'amines the evolution o" the content o" discourse about education in the conte't o" shi"tin!

discourse about development$ *hereas in this section, development discourse "acilitated the

creation o" a "ield o" international development or!ani#ations, in the ne't we show how, once

created, these or!ani#ations !enerate secondar discourse that results in an emphasis on di"

"erent levels and tpes o" education in di""erent decades$

T"an#latin* Inte"national Development into Educational Di#cou"#e

Since the end o" *orld *ar 11. institutionali#ed discourse on development within the 0N

)usti"ied the "ormation o" do#ens o" "ormal 0N&a""iliated or!ani#ations with the e'press pur

pose o" operationali#in! the 0Ns Charter, 6eclaration, and Covenants$ %he 0Ns commit

ment to promotin! education as a human ri!ht was mani"est in the relativel earl creation o"

the 0nited Nations Educational, Scienti"ic, and Cultural Or!ani#ation ?0NESCO, "$ +1(5B$

Iones ?+113B emphasi#ed the importance o" the ob)ective, material needs o" the Allies to

rebuild education sstems shattered b *orld *ar ++ in establishin! 0NESCO as an action

oriented or!ani#ation$ An emphasis on pscholo! and on international peace was deepl

embedded in 0NESCO, which populari#ed Clement Atlees notion that Hwars be!in in the

minds o" men$H Illiterac&or the lac= o" e'posure to the sociali#in! in"luence o" schoolin!

was there"ore constructed as a threat to peace ?Iones, +113B$ In addition, 0NESCOs earl

education approaches, such as "undamental education, assumed a causal lin= between educa

tion and development$ Mar!aret Mead, one o" a series o" social scientists and humanitarians

called upon to help 0NESCO de"ine its mission, declaredD

%he tas= o" Fundamental Education is to cover the whole o" livin!$ In addition, it is to teach, notonl new was, but the need and the incentive "or new was

...

i" the new education is to "ill

the place o" the old, it has to cover all areas o" livin! ... In man countries new "undamental

education is carried on b teams includin! social wor=ers, !raduate nurses, a!riculturaassistants,

home econo mists, h!iene e'perts$ ?>uoted in Jones, +113B

0NESCOs mandate envisions the or!ani#ation as the main conduit "or much develop

ment assistance$ .i=e other 0N or!ani#ations, 0NESCO su""ered a ma)or setbac= with the

advent o" the Cold *ar$ Since then, man bilateral or!ani#ations, and even sorne other 0N

or!ani#ations, created education sections$ In addition, several other inter!overnmental or!a

ni#ations speciali#in! in educational development emer!ed, such as the International Institute"or Educational ;lannin! ?IIE;, "$ +152 see 9in!, +11+ "or a more complete catalo! o"inter

national educational development or!ani#ationsB$ Althou!h 0NESCO tried "rom time to time

to mount ambitious !loballevel pro!rams, such as the *orld .iterac ;ro!ram, its main con

tribution to educational development became reports, pilot pro)ects, and con"erences ?Iones,

+113B$

Man "actors contributed to the rise o" what Co' ?+15B called the ideolo! o" educa

tional development$ 0NESCOs re!ional con"erences helped to create common vocabular

and !oals$ A !roup o" American economists ?/ec=er, +15( Schult#, +152B provided the ratio&


19/31

nallin= between education and development in the "orm o"human capital theor$ 0$S$ "ounda

tions supported both economic research and e'panded support "or the stud o" education and

development in other countries ?/erman, +117B$ Finall, intemational development or!ani#a

tions e'panded their education departments, promoted speci"ic education policies and pro)ects,

and "unded new educational and research networ=s in developin! countries ?Mcinn, +115B$

%he education policies promoted b the intemational development or!ani#ations, how

ever, do not necessaril derive "rom the educational research described in earlier sections,

rather the tend to mirror the shi"tin! ideas about national development ?/erman, +118 Coombs,

+14 *atson, +1B$ %able 8$+ is a simpli"ied mappin! o" the ma)or approaches to national

development in the decades since *orld *ar II, as articulated in the mainstream practitioner

literature ?Amdt, +18 J$ .ewis @ 9allab, +15 J$ ;$ .ewis, +1 Meier, +114B$ Alon!side

these development approaches, we show the correspondin! discourse about educational de

velopment and the educational priorities associated with this discourse ?;$ Iones, +118 ;$ *$Iones, +113, +117B$ %o emphasi#e the overlappin! >ualit o" man o" these ideas, the lines

demarcatin! decades are dashed, not solid$

Althou!h there is much overlap in these decades, trends are evident$ First, the concept o"

development shi"ts "rom national control and orientation to intemational "undin! and !lobal

orientation$ Second, we see increasin! comple'it in the wa the process o" development is

ima!ined, with newer approaches subordinatin! but not entirel replacin! older ones$ /ut,

most important, we see national development increasin!l de"ined in terms o" individual wel

"are, rather than simpl in terms o" national economic !rowth and, concurrentl, apush to use

%A/.E 8$l. %hemes in National 6evelopment and Educational 6evelopment 6iscourse,+143&+114

6ecade 6evelopment discourseEducational development discourse Educational priorities

+143s Communit development

%echnolo! trans"er

Comprehensive national

plannin!

Industriali#ation

Fundamental education ?+1(1&+144B Rural e'tension trainin!

Functional education Adult literac "or health &

a!riculture

Manpower plannin! 0niversal primar education

+153s Moderni#ation uman capital theor Formal secondar and hi!her

schoolin!

Economic !rowth Manpower plannin! %echnical and vocational trainin!

6ependenc Functional education ocationall oriented literac-------------------------------------------

---

+183s /asic human needs

rowth with e>uit

Inte!rated rural development

New International EconomicOrder

/asic education

E>uali#in! educational opportunit

%eachin! Hne!lected !roupsH

;eda!o! o" the oppressed

Formal primar schools

Non"ormal education "or outh

and adults

.iterac education

Adult:li"elon! learnin!

+13s ;overt reduction uman resources development Formal primar and secondar

schools

Structural ad)ustment Educational e""icienc and Education administration and

e""ectiveness "inance

Q mitlDmi!

+113s Sustainable human

development

Meetin! basic learnin! needs 0niversal "ormal primar and

secondar schools

;overt alleviation Social dimensions o"


20/31

Qualit learnin! irls education Qualit o" classroom teachin! and

currGculum

ad)ustment


21/31

universal access to primar education as a =e measure o" both individual wel"are and na

tional development$ %his rationali#ation&that individual wel"are, particularl individual ac

cess to >ualit education is at the ver center o" development&creates the "oundation on

which to build broader, normative ar!uments "or education and "or development$

/e!innin! in the second row o" %able 8$+, the comprehensive economic developmentplannin! approach promoted in the +143sb a variet o" !overnments and international donor

or!ani#ations assumed that each nation&state was a relativel autonomous, sel"&contained unit$

;rudent mana!ement o" domestic resources was the supposed determinant o" national devel

opment, and it mi!ht be achieved with little help "rom the outside world$ 6urin! this decade,

0NESCO implemented "undamental and later "unctional education pro!rams, introducin! lit

erac as a part o" a broad approach to communit development$ 0niversal primar education

was assumed to be a low&cost activit that re>uired locall trained teachers and no scarce

"orei!n e'chan!e$

In the +153s, rapid economic !rowth became prere>uisite to development, still promotedb central plannin!$ Educational planners ur!ed developin! countries to "ocus their limited

bud!ets on "ormal secondar and hi!her schoolin! in sub)ects related to industriali#ation$

%echnical and vocational trainin! also received support, as well as vocationall oriented lit

erac$ Education was rarel mentioned as a ri!ht, but rather as instrumental to industrial de

velopment$

In the +183s, as sorne speculated that economic !rowth was increasin!, rather than de

creasin! the ran=s o" the impoverished in man countries, the concept o" development was

e'panded to include social as well as economic aspects$ 6urin! this decade, basic human

needs emer!ed, alon! with the idea that the international communit had a responsibilit tomeet these needs in nation&states where wea= economies and administrative in"rastructure

rendered it impossible "or national !overnments to do so$ Sorne more radical analses e'

tended the responsibilities o" the international communit even "urther, su!!estin! that aNew

International Economic Order mi!ht be necessar to address chronic social and economic

imbalances at the world level that "avored the rich countries and maintained the economic

disadvanta!es o" the poorer ones$

In this conte't, a basic education, capable o" e>uippin! both adults and children to par

ticipate more "ull in their societies, became the "ocus o" development a!enc attention$ Edu

cation was the wa to e>uali#e economic opportunit and to incorporate previousl ne!lected!roups$ Alon! with "ormal primar schools, 0NESCO in the +183s emphasi#ed adult literac

and li"elon! education, and various international development or!ani#ations e'plored the po

tential o" non"ormal, that is, out&o"&school, education$

In the +13s, structural ad)ustment brou!ht home the messa!e that no nation is an island

all are part o" the world "inanciasstem$ %his implied that nation&states&both developed

and developin!&should ad)ust their domestic economic policies and structures to con"orm to

the international sstem, not vice versa, and that those nation&states that do not =eep their

"inancial house in order will "or"eit sorne de!ree o" their "inanciasoverei!nt$

Althou!h manpower plannin! o" the +143s "ailed to prepare most countries to handle the

educational crises in the +153s and +183s, a variation on it&human resources development

became ver popular in the +13s$ *ith education de"ined as a basic human need, human

resources development became a prere>uisite to social or human development and momen

tum built toward establishin! minimum standards o" basic education "or all individuals, par

ticularl previousl disadvanta!ed !roups ?Allen & An#alone, +1+B$ More emphasis was

placed on "ormal primar and secondar schools, particularl on improvin! e""icienc and

their abilit to serve all citi#ens$


22/31

*estern nation&states reacted to !lobal recession in the earl +113s with cutbac=s in

development assistance to both multilateral and bilateral or!ani#ations$ %his rein"orced the

in"luence o" the *orld /an= in education in developin! countries$ %he /an= maintained its

lar!e structural ad)ustment loans and continued to emplo more social science researchers

than an other international development or!ani#ation ?Jones, +118B$ / the earl +113s,however, the *orld /an= was couplin! its structural ad)ustment loans with social dimensions

o" ad)ustment pac=a!es$ In !eneral, these pac=a!es were desi!ned to stren!then the borrower

countrs capacit to monitor the e""ects o" structural ad)ustment on the poor and to channel

compensator pro!ram "unds throu!h !rassroots NOs$ / the mid&+113s, *orld /an= lit

erature was spea=in! o" development with a human "ace and about sustainable human devel

opment rather than a!!re!ate economic !rowth$

%he *orld /an=)oined with 0NESCO, 0NICEF, and the 0nited Nations 6evelopment

;ro!ramme ?0N6;B to sponsor the *orld Con"erence on Education "or All ?+113, Jomtien,

%hailandB$ *hereas instrumental ar!uments lin!ered )ust below the sur"ace in much o" the

"ocus on !irls education, normative ar!uments showed up in the claim o"universalit in the

title o"the con"erence, o"human bein!s havin! inalienable learnin! needs ?Inter&A!enc Com

mission$ *orld Con"erence on Education "or All, +113B, and o" underlin! e>uit concerns

embedded in calls "or >ualit education "or all ?9in! @ Sin!h, +11+B$

%he *orld /an=, convinced that the social returns toprimar schoolin! were hi!her than

"or an other tpe o" schoolin!, promoted "ormal primar and secondar schools$ In the inter

est o" e>uit, both the /an= and other international development or!ani#ations devoted more

attention in the +113s to school >ualit, both in terms o" classroom teachin! and curriculum$

Most countries now have a national polic mandatin! universal primar education and the

decade has been mar=ed b interest in alternate was to !et children, particularl !irls, in

remote and:or conservative areas into modern schools ?Ahmed, Chabbott, Joshi, & ;ande,

+112B$

In summar, the measures o" development as an international and a national concern

have chan!ed since the +143s "rom a narrow "ocus on national economic !rowth to incorpo

rate measures o" individual wel"are and human ri!hts$ At the same time, the locus o" responsi

bilit "or the development imperative has shi"ted "rom the national to the !loballevel$ Finall,

education became ine'tricabl lin=ed with notions o" development, and the levels and tpes o"

education emphasi#ed in di""erent decades mirror trends in broader development discourse,

not necessaril empirical research on education and development$

None o" the education approaches described previousl ?"undamental education, "unc

tional education, >ualit learnin! "or all, etc$B was "ull implemented and there"ore the postu

lated contribution o" education to development that each claimed has never been empiricall

established$ owever, these theories about the relationship between education and develop

ment were asserted and reiterated at hundreds o" international con"erences in the postwar

period, man o" them aimed particularl at o""icials in low&income countries and in interna

tional development a!encies$ %he role o" pro"essionals in promotin! these con"erences that, in

turn, promoted di""erent levels and tpes o" education because o"their putative lin=s to devel

opment, is the sub)ect o" the ne't section$

;ro"essionali#in! Educational 6eveloprnent

/etween the end o"*orld *ar II and the be!innin! o"the +13s, the bac=!round and compo

sition o" the sta"" o" international development or!ani#ations chan!ed si!ni"icanti$Ori!inall


23/31

Development and Edncation 1/1

recruited "rom "ormer colonial o""icers, "rom children o" missionaries, and "rom war relie"

wor=ers, newer sta"" includes "ormer volunteers with or!ani#ations li=e the ;eace Corps and

Intemational oluntar Service and hi!hl educated, e'patriate o""icials "rom developin! coun

tries, "leein! political upheaval or in search o" a lar!er pro"essional milieu ?Chabbott, +115B$

%he wor= o" the sta"" in !overnmental and non!ovemmental development or!ani#ationshas !rown more bureaucratic and pro"essionali#ed over time$ 6evelopment pro"essionals have

created and are now sustained b a networ= o" support or!ani#ations and publications$ ;or

e'ample, membership in the Societ "or International 6evelopment ?"$ +148B now includes

close to +3,333 individuals and over +73 or!ani#ations or a!encies in 53 countries$ %he bi

monthl International 6evelopment Abstracts ?"$ +17B covers more than 433 )ournals and

other serial publications and the 6evelopment ;eriodicals Inde' ?"$ +11+B lists about 533$

*ith respect to the education sector, the stud o" developin! countries has occupied consider

able space in ma)or comparative and international educational)ournals and con"erences since

the +143s$ / the late +183s, speciali#ation in educational development led to the establishment o" at least one )ournal ?the Intemational Journal o"Educational 6evelopment, " +1+B a

do#en postbaccalaureate de!ree pro!rams, such as the Stan"ord Intemational 6evelopment

Education Committee ?"$ +154B and associations, such as the Nordic Association "or the Stud

o" Education in 6evelopin! Countries ?"$ +1+B$

In spite o" their e""orts to pro"essionali#e, the routine barriers created b len!th tours

overseas and b preoccupation with the politics o" securin! !overnment "undin! tend to iso

late development pro"essionals "rom the *estern academic communit$ .i=e pro"essionals in

all "ields, man intend but "ew are able to remain up&to&date with new developments in their

"ields, such as debates in recent decades about the !ra nature o" the relationship betweeneducation and development$

Nonetheless, these pro"essionals pla a role in the rise in interest in education and over

seas development in *estern schools o" education$ ;or e'ample, volunteer teachers returnin!

"rom service with relie" a!encies and with later development a!encies ?i$e$, pre&pro"essionals

in our termsB, such as the American ;riends Service Committee and the ;eace Corps, brou!ht

new interest in developin! countries to international education departments in !raduate schools

o" education$ In addition, development a!encies "unded short&term and lon!&term trainin! "or

o""icials and academics "rom developin! countries, creatin! an important source o" revenue

"or sorne schools o" education$ %he ;ord ;oundation "unded the creation or e'pansion o"development departments in man schools o" education in the 0nited States$ Most directl,

development a!encies !enerated a demand "or e'perts in education who could provide advice

to ministries o" education in developin! countries$ *ithin academia, the stud o" education in

developin! countries usuall resided in a broader department o" comparative and:or interna

tional education in a school o" education$

6espite their smbiosis, the challen!e to human capital theor mounted in academic

circles rarel sur"aced in pro"essional educational development circles$ Instead, pro"essional

debates have "ocused more on the relative stren!th o" instrumental ?education asan input to

economic !rowthB versus human ri!hts )usti"ications "or education and "or the value o" di""er

ent levels o" education in di""erent conte'ts$ ;aith in the power o" education to address core

development concerns has !rown over time, as described in the precedin! section$ %his "aith

culminated in the +113 *orld Con"erence on Education "or All ?E;AB$

As noted previousl, since the late +143s, international development con"erences have

proved apopular wa "or chronicall under"unded international development or!ani#ations to

move the development a!enda "orward, to raise !lobal awareness about aparticular problem,

and to call on nation&states to brin! resources to bear on that problem$ / +113, various 0N


24/31

24 Colette Chabbott and Francisco O$ Ramire#

and other donor or!ani#ations had sponsored hundreds o" world and re!ional educational

con"erences and had produced more than 88 recommendations to education ministers and

about a do#en !eneral declarations on the sub)ect o" education$

/ +113 all o" the components o" the blueprint described earlier in Fi!ure 8$+, which

allowed intemational development pro"essionals to le!itimatel initiate, sponsor, and "ollow

up world development con"erences, were in place$ %he blueprint includes creatin! a sense o"

crisis about sorne sector at the !loballevel ?Coombs, +15, +14B mobili#in! !ovemmental

consensus around a non&bindin! declaration and a "ramewor= "or action !eneratin! national

plans o" action !eneratin! additional national and intemational "undin! "or those plans es

tablishin! intemational means to monitor compliance with national plans and, wherever pos

sible, translatin! the sub)ect o" the con"erence into a bindin! international covenant or de"in

in! it more "orce"ull as a human ri!ht ?0NESCO, Education "or All Forum Secretariat, +112B$

In addition, the Education "or All con"erence was one o" the "irst !lobal con"erences to

invite development NOs, both international ones and those "ormed in developin! countries,

as "ull participants$ %hese NOs later helped to monitor national !overnments compliance with

a!reements made at the con"erence.E>uipped with ine'pensive"acsimile machines and electronic

mail connections to other !roups and or!ani#ations around the world, local NOs are able to

report la!s in !overnment e""orts to tum intemational commitments into action ?Social *atch,

+115B$

%he impact o" EFA on literac and on primar school enrollments, or even on interna

tional development assistance levels to education, has et to be assessed ?/ennell &Furlon!,

+11 alla=, +11+B$ Meanwhile, the e""ects o" the EFA Con"erence and other international

development pro)ects on the wa education is de"ined, or!ani#ed, and appears at the !lobal,

national, and classroom levels, particularl in low&income countries, remains to be e'plored$

Summar

Intemational development pro"essionals have invo=ed ta=en&"or&!ranted ideals to mobili#e

both nation&states and NOs around a menu o" technical&"unctional education needs$ %hese

ideals, the pro"essionals claims o"technical&"unctional e'pertise, and the de!ree to which the

pro"essionals have !ained !lobal acceptance o" certain activities, such as international con"er

ences, increase the in"luence o" these pro"essionals beond their individual or collective so

cial, economic, or political status$

In this sense development pro"essionals should not be mainl construed as power"ul

a!ents pursuin! their own interests or those o" their nation&states o" ori!in$ %hese pro"ession

als have, alon! with other mechanisms, plaed an important role in recent decades in di""usin!

blueprints o" education and in the development and the e'pansion o" di""erent levels and tpes

o" education in di""erent decades$ %he have mainl accomplished this b enactin! the role o"

ob)ective e'perts and o" rational mana!ers, en!a!ed in hi!hl le!itimate activities,

associated with sorne o" the most ta=en&"or&!ranted notions o" pro!ress and )ustice at the

!loballevel$

CONC.0SIONS

%he relationship between education and development is aproblematic one$ Individual schoolin!

tendsto

raise individual wa!es, ma=e individuals more politicall active ?thou!hnot

neces


25/31

Development and Education 25

saril more tolerantB, and promote modern attitudes$ *hether these e""ects can be lar!el


26/31

attributed to education or whether, instead, the are evidence o" more !eneral processes o"

*esterni#ation remains to be e'plored$

%he e""ects o" di""erent tpes o" education at the societal level, on national economic,

political, and:or cultural development, are ambi!uous$ Mass education has hada positive and

relativel robust e""ect on national development$ %he e""ects o" hi!her education on societal

development, in contrast, have not been si!ni"icant and:or consistent$

%he e""ects o" development on education are no less problematic$ Mass schoolin! is not,

as was previousl asserted, a rational response to increasin! demand "or literate wor=ers in the

course o" moderni#ation in both developed and developin! countries, mass education was

instituted "ar in advance o" an "unctional need "or it$ Instead, since the end o" *orld *ar ++,

the e'pansion o" education appears to be attuned to the transnational blueprints "or promotin!

development throu!h education$

%hese blueprints are re"lected in international development discourse articulatedb de

velopment pro"essionals in international or!ani#ations and di""used throu!h the various ac

tivities o" those or!ani#ations, includin! international con"erences$ %he blueprints are in"ormed

b broad and pervasive world models o" pro!ress and )ustice, in which education is valued

both as a human capital investment andas an inalienable human ri!ht$ Nation&states are e'

pected to commit themselves to education "or development !oals and strate!ies and the "re

>uentl do so, independent o" local economic, political, or social conditions$ %he results are

"amiliar onesD loose couplin! between policies and practices and practices out o" snc with

local realities$

%he institutionali#ation o" these blueprints tends to lower the e""ects o"national development on educational e'pansion, because all countries now en!a!e in such e'pansion increase

the e""ects o" national development on educational >ualit, as more national resources are

channeled to education increase individual returns to educationb increasin! credentialism

and decrease collective returns because all countries are e'pandin! education at the same

time$ Further studies are needed to measure the ma!nitude o" these and other e""ects$

More broadl, "urther studies are needed to "ocus on the conditions that produce stron!er

ties between education and development$ Man prior reviews o" the education and develop

ment literature have made this point, emphasi#in! the in"luence o" varin! societal and educa

tional conditions on, "or e'ample, schoolin! and productivit ?Rubinson&

/rown, +11(B$%his review su!!ests that a new !eneration o" studies should e'amine the institutionali#ation

o" world blueprints and their transnational carriers$ %he scope, coherence, speci"icit, and

status o" these blueprints varGes over time$ %he de!ree to which transnational carriers cooper

ate or compete, speciali#e or overlap in area or content "ocus, are viewed as merel re"lectin!

national interest, or are celebrated as autonomous beacons o" pro"essionali#ed e'pertise, also

varies$ Much research is needed to ascertain whether and in what was this variation in world

blueprints and their transnational carriers conditions ties between education and development

at both the societal and individuallevel o" analsis$

REFERENCES

Adelman$ I., & Morris, C$ T. ?+182B$ Economic growth and social equity in developing countries. Stan"ord, CAD

Stan"ord 0niversit$

Ahmed, M$, Chabbott, C$, Joshi$ A$, & ;ande, R$ ?+112B$ Primary education for al: !earning "rom the #$%&

e'perience. *ashin!ton, 6CD Academ "or Educational 6evelopment$

Allen, 6$ *$, & An#alone, S$ ?+1+B$ /asic needsD New approach to development&/ut new approach to educa

tion- lnternational $eview o" Education, 78?2B, 731&775$


27/31

Almond, $, &


28/31

Collins, R$ ?+181B$ (he credential society: % historical sociology of education and stratification. New , 44&3$a!e, J$, & arnier, M$ ?+117B$ Stron! sales and educational e'pansionD France versus Ital$ In /$ Fuller & R$

Rubinson ?Eds$B, (he political construction of education ?pp$ +44&+8+B$ New >@s. ;arisD *orld Con"erence on Education "orAl$

Jones, ;$ ?+118B$ On world ban= education "inancin!$ Review article$ &omparative Education, --+5, MarchB, ++8&+71$

Jones, ;$ *$ ?+113B$ 0NESCO and the politics o" !loballiterac$ &omparative Education $eview, -7+58, (+&53$

Jones, ;$ *$ ?+117B$ 1orld bankfinancing of education: !ending, learning and development.New


29/31

9in!, K. ?+11 +B$ %id and education in the developing world: (he role of the donar agencies in educational

analysis. Esse', 09D .on!man$

9in!, 9$, & Sin!h, J$ S$ ?+11+B$ )mproving the quality of basic education. ;aper presented at the Con"erence o"

Commonwealth Education Ministers, /arbados$

9ni!ht, J$ /$, & Sabot, R. $ ?+18B$ %he rate o" return on educational e'pansion$ Economics of Education $eview, 5?2B, 744&757$

.ewis, J$, & 9allab, $ ?Eds$, +15B$ 2evelopment stages reconsidered ?ol$ 4B$ New /runswic=, NJD %ransaction$

.ewis, J$ ;$ ?Ed$, +1B$ Strengthening the poor: 1hat have we learned ?ol$ +3B$ New /runswic=, NJD %ransac

tion$

.ipset, S$ M$ ?+152B$ (hefirst review nation. arden Cit, N


30/31

Ramire#, F$ 0., & Cha, , +42&+82$

Reisner, E$ $ ?+178B$ ationalism and education since 5A=>.New uist,N$ ? +11B$ 6eterminants o" educational participation and achievement o" women in the %hird *orldD

A review o" the evidence anda theoretical criti>ue$ $eview of Educational $esearch, 41?7B, +(2&+2,

%homas, $, Ramire#, F$, Meer, J$ *$, & obbalet, J$ ?+181B$ Maintainin! national boundaries in the world

sstemD %he rise o" centralist re!imes$ In J. *$ Meer & M$ annan ?Eds$B, ational development and the

world system. Chica!oD 0niversit o" Chica!o ;ress$

%orne, J., Oppenheim, A$ N$, & Farnen, R$ F$ ?+185B$ &ivic education in ten countries: %n empDrica study

?ERICB$ New


31/31

The E00ect# o0 &choolin* on Individual (ive# 1

Chabbott y Ramírez Desarrollo English

Documents

Transcript of Chabbott y Ramírez Desarrollo English