CH2_ECOLOGY ENGINEERING rev.pdf

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CHAPTER II

ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING AND ECOSYSTEM

RESTORATION

A. Definition of ecological engineering

Ecological engineering is defined as the design of sustainable ecosystems that

integrate human society with its natural environment for the benefit of both (Mitsch

and Jrgensen, 2004). It involves the restoration of ecosystems that have been

substantially disturbed by human activities such as environmental pollution or land

disturbance; and the development of new sustainable ecosystems that have both human

and ecological value. While there was some early discussion of ecological engineering

in the 1960s, its development was spawned later by several factors, including loss ofconfidence in the view that all pollution problems can be solved through technological

means and the realization that with technological means, pollutants are just being

moved from one form to another. Such approaches require massive resources to solve

problems, that, in turn, perpetuate carbon and nitrogen cycle problems, for example.

Restoration ecology was described as the full or partial [re]placement of structural or

functional characteristics that have been extinguished or diminished and the

substitution of alternative qualities or characteristics than the ones originally present

with the proviso that they have more social, economic, or ecological value than existed

in the disturbed or displaced state (Cairns, 1988). A definition of ecological restoration

established as part of a National Academy of Science study in the early 1990s was thereturn of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance

(NRC, 1992). Several restoration fields have developed somewhat independently, and

all appear to have the design of ecosystems as their theme. Although related to

ecological engineering or even a part of it, several of these approaches seem to lack one

of the two important cornerstones of ecological engineering, namely: 1) recognizing the

self-designing ability of ecosystems, or 2) basing the approaches on a theoretical base,

not just empiricism.

The development of ecological engineering was given strong impetus in the last decade

with the publication of a textbook, the publication of the journal Ecological

Engineering and the formation of two professional ecological engineering societies.

The five principles defining ecological engineering are: 1) It is based on the self-

designing capacity of ecosystems; 2) It can be the acid test of ecological theories; 3)

It relies on system approaches; 4) It conserves non-renewable energy sources; and 5) It

supports biological conservation. Ecology as a science is not routinely integrated into

engineering curricula, even in environmental engineering programs. Likewise,

ecologists, environmental scientists, and managers are missing important training in

their professionproblem solving. These two deficiencies were addressed in the

integrated field of ecological engineering.

One way to view ecological engineering and ecosystem restoration, since they coversuch a wide varieties of fields, is to consider the various fields on a spectrum of how

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much conventional engineering (and, hence, reliance on human structures and our

fossil fuel economy are involved; see Figure 2.1). On the right side of this spectrum are

traditional ecological approaches such as prairie restoration or wetland restoration

where quite often only a small effort of conventional engineering is needed. In some

cases, wetlands (at least the hydrology) can almost be restored in a few hours or days if

a drainage tile is broken or blocked, allowing the return of the original hydrology. Inthe middle of the spectrum are approaches such as biomanipulation or wetland creation

where clearly more management and engineering are required. This is probably also

true for wetlands built for wastewater or nonpoint source pollution control or for

developing multi-species agroecosystems. At the far left of the theoretical spectrum are

examples that involve significant amounts of energy and engineering. Intensely

engineered systems such as Biosphere 2, clearly ecological engineering in the sense

that ecosystems are being created, quite often are enormously subsidized, yet might fall

within the definition of ecological engineering.

Biosphere 2 Biomanipulation Prairie Restoration

Soil Bioremediation Wetland Restoration

Solar Aquatics Mineland Restoration

Agroecological Engineering

Wastewater Wetlands

Wetland Creation

more lesshuman engineering

highlowreliance on self-design

sustainability potential

low high

Fig. 2.1. Spectrum of ecological engineering and ecosystem restoration (Mitsch

and Jrgensen, 2004)

B. Principles of ecological engineering

While ecological engineering and ecosystem restoration might prove that some

ecological theories are not rigorous enough to survive real world tests, the principles

below are based on ecological concepts that have a strong record of field verification.

Principle 1Ecosystem structure and function are determined by the forcing

functions of the system.

Principle 2Energy inputs to the ecosystems and available storage of matter

are limited.

Principle 3Ecosystems are open and dissipative systems.

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Principle 4Attention to a limited number of factors is most strategic in

preventing pollution or restoring ecosystems.

Principle 5Ecosystems have some homeostatic capability that results in

smoothing out and depressing the effects of strongly variable inputs.

Principle 6Recycling pathways must be matched to the loading rates to

ecosystems to reduce the effect of pollution.

Principle 7Design for pulsing systems wherever possible.

Principle 8Ecosystems are self-designing systems.

Principle 9Processes of ecosystems have characteristic time and space scales

that should be accounted for in environmental management.

Principle 10Biodiversity should be championed to maintain an ecosystems

self-design capacity.

Principle 11Ecotones, or transition zones, are as important for the ecosystems

as the membranes are for cells.

Principle 12Couplings between ecosystems should be utilized wherever

possible.

Principle 13 The components of an ecosystem are interconnected, interrelated

and form a network, implying that direct as well as indirect effects of ecosystemdevelopment need to be considered.

Principle 14An ecosystem has a history of development.

Principle 15Ecosystems and species are most vulnerable at their geographical

edges.

Principle 16Ecosystems are hierarchical systems and are parts of a larger

landscape.

Principle 17Physical and biological processes are interactive. It is important

to know both physical and biological interactions and interpret them properly.

Principle 18Ecotechnology requires a holistic approach that integrates as far

as possible all the interacting parts and processes.

Principle 19Information in ecosystems is stored in structures.

References:

Cairns, J., Jr. 1988. Restoration ecology: The new frontier. Pages 1-11 In: J. Cairns, Jr.,ed.,Rehabilitating Damaged Ecosystems, Volume I. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

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Mitsch, W. J., S. E. Jrgensen. 1989. Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to

Ecotechnology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 472 pp.

Mitsch, W. J. 1993. Ecological engineeringa cooperative role with the planetary life

support systems. Environmental Science & Technology 27:438-445.

Mitsch, W. J. 1998. Ecological engineeringthe seven-year itch. Ecological

Engineering 10: 119-138.

Mitsch, W. J., S. E. Jrgensen. 2003. Ecological engineering: A field whose time has

come.Ecological Engineering 20: 363-377.

Mitsch, W. J., S. E. Jorgensen. 2004. Ecological Engineering and Ecosystem

Restoration. Wiley, New York.

National Research Council. 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems. NationalAcademy Press, Washington, DC.

Internet resources:

Ecological Engineering (the journal), Volumes 1-23 (1991 present) published by

Elsevier. Journal content and other journal information published at:

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng.

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http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolenghttp://www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng


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Slides

1 & 4

Madan, or Marsh Arabs,Mesopotamian Marshlandssouthern Iraq

With permission from National Geographic; first published

in textbook: Mitschand Gosselink, 1986, Wetlands. Van

Nostrand Reinhold, New York Richardson 2004

Drainage of the Mesopotamian Marshlands

Slides2 & 5Drainage of the Mesopotamian Marshlands

Slides

3 & 6Drainage of the Mesopotamian Marshlands

Olentangy River Wetland Research Park

The Ohio State University

ExperimentalWetlands

Oxbow Wetland

Bottomland Hardwood ForestRestoration

MesocosmCompound Sandefur

Wetland Pavilion

Heffner Wetland

Building

CityBikepath

OlentangyRiver

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Slides

7 & 10

EDUCATION AND RESEARCH ARE

MOST IMPORTANT TO ENHANCE OUR KNOWLEDGE AND

WISE USE OF WETLANDS

Slides

8 &11

Olentangy River Wetland Research Park, Ohio S tate University

Slides

9 & 12

Ecological Engineering

and

Ecosystem Restoration

Restoring the Florida Everglades

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Slides

13 & 16

Restoring the Florida Everglades

Treatment Wetlands

Slides

14 & 17

restoredbottomland

forest

createdwetlandinterceptingtiledrainage

Restoring the Mississippi River Basin

Restoring Coastal Marshes in New J ersey

Slides

15 & 18

Restoring the Skjern River, Denmark

Restoring Coastal Marshes in New J ersey

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Slides

19 & 22

Biosphere 2 - the most costly ecological engineering of all

impacts andemissions

ECOSYSTEMSIndustrialization

andurbanization

ECOSYSTEMS

Environmentaltechnology

Ecologicalmodelling

Strategy for environmental managementEarly 1970s

Slides

20 & 23


Ecologicalmodelling

ECOSYSTEMS

Environmentaltechnology

HUMANS

Environmentallegislation

Ecologicalengineering

and

ecosystemrestoration

Global environmental problems

Climate change

Ozone depletion

Acid deposition Rain forestl oss

Cleanertechnology;

Sustainabledevelopment

Strategy for environmental managementtoday

Slides

21 & 24


CLEANERTECHNOLOGY

CLIFE CYCLEANALYSIS

L

RAW MATERIAL ENERGY

TRANSPORT

APPLICATION

DISPOSAL

ECOSYSTEMS

E

ENVIRONMENTALTECHNOLOGY

T

ECOLOGICALENGINEERING

ANDECOSYSTEM

RESTORATION

E

RECYCLINGC

RECYCLINGC T

E

T

E

L

L

L

T

E

T

E

USE OF WASTE HEATC

PRODUCTIONC

PRODUCT

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Slides

25 & 28

21002000190018000

2

4

6

8

10

Change in population 1805-1999 and an op-

timistic (but realistic) prognosis 1999-2050

Human

population(billions)

Year

Goals of Ecological Engineering

1. the restoration of ecosystems that have beensubstantially disturbed by human activitiessuch as environmental pollution or landdisturbance; and

2. the development of new sustainableecosystems that have both human andecological value.

Slides

26 & 29

100

80

60

40

20

01900 1920 1940

Year

Atmospheric CO2

Global Nitrogen Fixation

1960 1980 2000

PercentChange

Ecological Restoration

the return of an ecosystem to a

close approximation of its

condition prior to disturbance

Source: NRC, 1992

Slides

27 & 30 Ecological Engineering

the design of sustainable

ecosystems that integrate

human society with its natural

environment for the benefit of

both

Source: Mitsch and Jrgensen, 2004

Termsthatare synonyms, subdisciplines, or fields similar toecological engineering______ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______ _______ ______

synthetic ecology biomanipulation

restoration ecology riverand lake restoration

bioengineering wetland restoration

sustainableagroecology reclamation ecology

habitat reconstruction nature engineering

ecohydrology ecotechnology

ecosystem rehabilitation engineering ecology

biospherics solar aquatics

______ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______ _______ ______

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Slides

31 & 34 History of Ecological Engineering

H.T. Odum(1960s) mention of ecological engineering inseveral publications

Ma Shijun (1960s-70s in China; 1985 in Westernliterature) father of ecological engineering in China

Mitsch -t aught course at IIT in 1975 called Ecologicalengineering and systems ecology

Ecotechnology of Uhlmann, Straskraba and Gnauek(1983-1985)

Mitsch and Jrgensen ecological engineering book (1989)

ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERINGECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

ANNUAL MEETINGANNUAL MEETING

MAY 1, 2001MAY 1, 2001

UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIAUNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA

ATHENSATHENS

Slides

32 & 35 History of Ecological Engineering First ecological engineering meeting in Trosa Sweden (1991)

followed by Etnier and Guterstambook (1991, 1997)

Ecological Engineeringjournal started (1992)

Ecological engineering workshop in Washington DC atNational Academy of Sciences (1993)

IEES started in 1993 in Utrecht, The Netherlands

SCOPE project in ecological engineering and ecosystemrestoration established in Paris, 1994 - 2002

Discussions of American ecological engineering society inColumbus, 1999; AEES first meeting April 2001 Athens, GA

Mitsch and Jrgensen (2004) and Kangas (2004) textbookscompleted

Seriesof 4 workshops andsubsequent specialissue publicationsof SCOPE(ScientificCommittee on Problemsof the Environment) project EcologicalEngineering and EcosystemRestoration

______________________________________________________________________________Workshop Title Workshop Location Special Issue

And Date Publication of Ecol Eng______________________________________________________________________________Ecological engineeringin Tallin,Estonia Mitsch andMander (1997)Ce ntra l a nd Ea ste rn Europ e: No vember 6 -8, 1 995Remediationof ecosystemsdamaged by environmentalcontamination

Ecologicalengineer ingin developing Beijing,China R.Wanget al. (1998)countries October 7-11, 1996

Ecologicalengineer ingapplied tor iver Par is,France Lefeuvre et al. (2002)and wetland restoration July 29-31, 1998

Ecology ofpost-mining landscapes Cottbus, Germany HttlandBradshaw(2001)March 15-19,1999

______________________________________________________________________________

Slides

33 & 36

ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERINGECOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

WORKSHOPWORKSHOP

MARCH 15MARCH 15--16, 199916, 1999

THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITTHE OHIO STATE UNIVERSIT

COLUMBUSCOLUMBUS

Self-design

The application of self-organization

in the design of ecosystems

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Slides

37 & 40Systems categorized by types of organization (modified from Pahl-Wostl, 1995)

____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ ___Characteris tic Imposed organization Self-organization

____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ ___

Control externally imposed; endogenously imposed;

centralized control distributed control

Rigidity rigid networks flexible networks

Potential for adaptation little potential high potential

Application conventional engineering ecological engineering

Examples machine organism

fascist or socialist society democratic society

agriculture natural ecosystem

____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ ___

A Systems Approach

Slides

38 & 41

Nonrenewable Resource

Conservation

Slides

39 & 42

The Acid Test

ConventionalEngineer

FossilFuels

Natu ralEnergies

Servicesto Societ

Conventional EngineeringConventional Engineering

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Slides

43 & 46

Na tur alEnergies

self

design

FossilFuels

Servicesto Societ

EcologicalEngineer

Mitsch (1998)

Ecological EngineeringEcological Engineering

Comparison of ecotechnology and biotechnology

_____________________________________________________________

Characteristi c Ecotechnology Biot echno logy

_____________________________________________________________Basic unit Ecosystem Cell

Basic principles Ecology Genetics; cell biology

Control Forcing fun ctions, Genetic structure

organisms

Design Self-design with some Human design

human help

Biotic diversity Protected Changed

Maintenance and Reasonable Enormousdevelopment costs

Energy b asis Solar based Fossil fuel based

________________________ _______________________________ ______

Slides

44 & 47

Ecosystem Conservation

To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution

of intellegent tinkering.

Aldo Leopold

Contrasts with Other Fields

Environmental engineering

Biotechnology

Ecology

Slides

45 & 48 Contrasts with Other Fields


Biotechnology

TheoreticalEco logy

Ap pl ie dEco logy

Eco log ica lEngineering

The design, restoration andcreat ion o f ecosys tems

Resource Mgt.

Ecotoxicology

Environ. Monitoring

Ecosystems

Community

EcologicalEconomics

Landscape Eco logy Ri sk Ass es sm en t

Impact AssessmentPopulation

Evolutionary

The design, restoration, and creation of ecosystems

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Slides

49 & 52 Contrasts with Other Fields


Biotechnology

Ecology

Ecotechniques/Cleaner Technology

Industrial Ecology

Functional classification

Ecosystems are used to reduce or solve a pollutionproblem

Ecosystems are imitated or copied to reduce aresource problem

The recover of ecosystems is supported

Existing ecosystems are modified in anecologically sound way

Ecosystems are used for the benefit of humankindwithout destroying the ecological balance

Slides

50 & 53

Classification of Ecological

Engineering

Examples of ecological engineering approaches for terrestrial and aquatic systemsaccordingtotypesof applications.

________________________ ______________________________ _____________________EcologicalEngineering Approaches Terrestrial Examples Aquatic Examples________________________ ______________________________ _____________________1 .Ecosystemsareusedtosolvea pollu tion Phytoremediation Wastewaterwetlandproblem

2.Ecosystemsare imitated or copied to Forest restoration

3 .Th e re co very o fan ec os ys tem is Mine lan d res to ra tion Lak e r es to rat io nsupportedafter disturbance

4.Existing ecosystems are modified Selectivetimber harvest Biomanipulationin an ecologicallysound way

5. Ecosystems are used for b enefit Sustainable Multi-specieswithoutdestroyingecological balance a gr oe cosys tem s aq uacu lt ur e________________________ _______________________________ ____________________

Replacement wetland

reduce or solve a problem

Slides

51 & 54

Biosphere 2 Biomanipulation Prairie Restoration

Soil Bioremediation Wetland Restoration

Solar Aquatics Mineland Restoration

Agroecological Engineering

Wastewater Wetlands

Wetland Creation

more lesshuman engineering

highlowreliance on self-design

sustainability potentiallow high

Solving or reducing a pollution problem

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Slides

55 & 58Solving or reducing a pollution problem

Imitating or copying

ecosystems

Slides

56 & 59

Solving or reducing a pollution problem

Supporting ecosystem recovery

Slides

57 & 60

Imitating or copying ecosystems

Supporting ecosystem recovery

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Slides

61 & 64Modifying

existing

ecosystems in an

ecologically

sound way

Biomanipulation

Source: Hosper

and Meijer, 1992

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________Ecological Engineering Project Location Purpose References

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Createdflow-through riverine Columbus, Ohio to experimentallydeterminethelong-termeffects Mitsch et al.,1998;wetlands of planting on ecosystem function in progress

Root -zon ewetlan ds f o r S no ger d, S weden to inv es tiga te u se o f r o ot -zon ewetlan ds to G um br icht , 1 99 2wastewater treatment provide tertiary treatment of wastewater from

smalltown

Non-pointsource control central and southern to estimate theinteraction betweenwetland retention Braskerud,2002a,bwetlands Norway efficiencyand nutrient loss from agricultural

watersheds

Surface-waterwetlandsfor HoughtonLake,Michigan to use natural peatlandstotreat wastewater Kadlecand Knight,wastewater treatment from municipality to prevent lake pollution 1996

Renovation ofcoal-minedrainage AthensCounty,Ohio to studyiron retention fromcoal mine drainage Mitsch andWise,1998

withTypha wetland

R iv er p oll ut io n co nt rol S uz hou, C hi na t o us e wat er h ya ci nt hs (Eichhornia crassipes) Ma a nd Ya n, 198 9systemsforwaterpollution controland

production offodder

Nonpointsource pollution control central Illinois to create wetlandstoremove nutrientsfromMidwest Kovacicet al., 2000agricultural runoff Larsonet al., 2000

Intertidal sediment fences southern Louisiana to constructintertidal fencesmadefromrecycled Boumanset al.,1997Christmast reestorevegetationon mudflatsandincreasedsedimenttrapping

Examples of ecological engineering at different scales (cont.)

Ecosystem Scale

Slides

62 & 65

Classification According to Scale

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________Ecological Engineering Project Location Purpose References

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Restoration ofriparianlandscape Lake County,Illinois to restoreMidwestern U.S.riverfloodplain Heyetal., 1989anddeterminedesign proceduresforrestored Mitsch,1992wetlands Sanville andMitsch,

1994

Reg io na l lan ds cape r es to ra tion Cen tr al F lo rida to r econs tr uc tw et land /u plan d land scape Bro wn e ta l. , 1 99 2at phosphate mine

Agro-ecologicalengineering severalthousandsites to havemultiple-product farmingwithextensive R.Zhanget al.,1998in China recycling

Fishproduction/wetlandsystems YixingCounty, to producefisheriessynchronizedto Phragmites Mitsch,1991JiangsuProvince,China wetlandproductionandharvesting

Sa lt m ar sh c re at io n C hi na s e as t coa st , es p, t o de ve lo pSpartinama rs he s o nf or me r C hu ng, 1 98 5, 1 98 9Wenling,Zhejiang barrencoastline forshorelineprotection and Qinetal. ,1997Province food and fuel product ion

Saltmarshrestoration Delaware Bay, NewJerseyto restoresaltmarshesfromsalthayfarmsand Weinstein et al. ,1997,AndPhragmites- domi na te d ma rs he s 20 01; T eal an d

Weinstein,2002

River backwater restoration RhoneRiver,central to restoreandenhanceriver andriverbackwater Henry andAmoros,France connectivity 1995; Henry et al.,

2002______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Examples of ecological engineering at different scales (cont.)

RegionalScale

Slides

63 & 66_____________________ ________________________ __________________________ ___________________________ ________________Ecological Engineering Project Location Purpose References

_____________________ ________________________ __________________________ ___________________________ ________________

Treatmentofseptagewastes Harwich,Massachuset ts to producecleanwater(drinkingwater standards) Guterstam andTodd,

f rom s e pt age i na n un li ned l a nd fi ll l a goon 1990 ; Te a l and Peterson,1991

S ca le m ode ls o f E ve r gl ade s W as hi ngt on , D C t o s im u la te phys ic a l andb io log ic al f unc ti on A de ya ndL ove la nd ,

and Chesapeake Bay of large-scale ecosystems 1991

Bi os ph er e 2 C at alin a Mo un ta in s, 1 .5 h a gl as s-e nc lo se ds ys te m to in ve sti ga te Ma ri no a nd O du m,

Arizona ecology and humans in enclosed systems 1999

W et la nd m es oc os ms S an D ie go , C al if or ni a t o i nv es ti ga te t h e ro le o f h yd ro pe ri od s on B us na rd o e t a l. , 19 92m a rs h r et en ti ono f nu tr ie nt s a ndme ta ls S in i cr ope e t a l. , 1992

W et la nd m es oc os ms C ol um bu s, O h io t o c om pa re c o mp et it iv e gr ow th o f tw o w et la nd S ve ng so uk a nd M it sc h,macrophytespeciesinlowandhigh nutr ients 2001

W et la nd m es oc os ms C ol um bu s, O h io t o i nv es ti ga te t he u s e o f su lf ur s cr ub be r ma te ri al A hn e t a l. , 20 01 ;

A s lin er s fo r tr eat me nt w et la nd s Ah n an d Mit sc h, 2 00 2b

Peat landrestorationplots Waikatoregion,North to determinethe roleoffer t il izer ,seedaddit ions Schipperetal . ,2002

Island,NewZealand andcult ivat ion techniquesforpeat landrestorat ion

E xpe ri me nt al e s tuar ine ponds M or ehe adC i ty , N or th t o i nves ti ga te e st uar ine ponds r ec ei v inga O dum, 1985 , 1989bC ar ol in a m ix tu re o f wa st ew ate r a nd s alt wa te r

Forestedwet landsforrecycling Gainesvi lle,F lorida to experimental lyinvest igateforested cypress Odum etal. ,1974;domesforwastewaterrecyclingand conservation EwelandOdum,1984;

Dierbergand Brezonik,

Mesocosm Scale

Ecosystem Scale

Examples of ecological engineering at different scales

When to Use Ecotechnology

1. The parts of nature affected, directly and indirectly, mustbe determined.

2. Quantitative assessment of impact of all alternatives mustbe carried out.

3. Project needs to include entire system, including humanimpacts and affected ecosystem.

4. Optimization should include short and long-term effects.

5. Renewable and nonrenewable resource use should bequantified.

6. Uncertainty should be accounted for in ecological andeconomic components.

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Slides

67 & 69

Ecological Design Principles

Ecological Design Principles

_________________________________________________ _____

7. Design for pulsing systems whenever possible.

8. Ecosystems are self-designing systems.

9. Processes of ecosystems have characteristic time and sp acescales that should be accounted for in environmental

management.

10.Biodiversity should be championed to maintain an

ecosystems self-design capacity.

11.Ecotones, transition zones, are as important for ecosystems asmembranes are for cells.

12.Coupling between ecosystems should be utilized whereverpossible.

Slides

68 & 70

Ecological Design Principles______________________________________________________

1.Ecosystem structure and function are determined by theforcing functions of the system.

2.Energy inputs to the ecosystem and available storage ofmatter are limited.

3.Ecosystems are open and dissipative systems.

4.Attention to a limited number of factors is most strategic inpreventing pollution or restoring ecosystems.

5.Ecosystems have some homeostatic capability that results insmoothing out and depressing the effects of strongly variableinputs.

6.Match recycling pathways to the rates to ecosystems toreduce the effect of pollution.

Ecological Design Principles__________________________________________________________

13. The components of an ecosystem are interconnected, interrelated,

and form a network, implying that di rect as well as indirecteffects of ecosystem development need to be considered.

14. An ecosystem has a history of development.

15. Ecosystems and species are most vulnerable at their geographicaledges.

16. Ecosystems are hierarchical systems and are parts of a largerlandscape.

17. Physical and biol ogical processes are interactive. It is importantto know both physical and biological interactions and to interpre tthem properly.

18. Ecotechnology requires a holistic approach that integrates allinteracting parts and processes as far as possible.

19. Information in eco systems is stored in structures.

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