Introduction to the Study of Motivation

Chapter 1

Motivationinvolves those processes that give behavior its energy and direction.

Behavior is relatively strong,Intense, and persistent.

Behavior is aimed toward achieving a particular purpose or goal.

Reality(In all its complexity)

Applications; Recommendations

(How to support and enhance motivation and

emotion in applied settings)

Theory(As created by motivational

psychologists)

Hypotheses(As derived from the

theory)

Data(To test the adequacy of each hypothesis)

Representation

Application

Motivational Science

Figure 1.1 illustrates the function and utility of a good theory.

Source of Why Exercise? Motivation Illustration

Fun, enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Children exercise spontaneously—they run and jump and chase, and they do so simply for the sheer fun of it.Personal challenge Flow Athletes get “in the zone” when their sport

optimally challenges their skills.Forced to do so External regulation Students exercise because their coach tells them to do so. Paid to do so Extrinsic Motivation A coach or instructor is paid to exercise and to help others exercise. Accomplish a goal Goal Runners see if they can run a mile in 6 minutes or less. Value its health Value People exercise to lose weight or to strengthen the benefits strengthen

the heart. Inspired to do so Possible self People watch others exercising and becomes inspired to do the same. A standard of Achievement Snow skiers race to the bottom of the mountain trying to beat their excellence strivings previous best time.

Satisfaction from Perceived competence As exercisers make progress, they feel more competent, more effective. a job well doneAn emotional kick Opponent process Vigorous jogging can produce a runner’s high (a rebound to the pain).

Good mood Positive affect Beautiful weather can pick up exercisers’ moods and invigorate exercise spontaneously, as they skip along without knowing why.Alleviate guilt Introjection People exercise because they think that is what they should, ought to, or

have to do to feel good about themselves.Relieve stress Personal control After a stressful day, people go to the silence depression gym, which they

see as a structured, controllable environment.Hang out with friends Relatedness Exercise is often a social event, a time simply to enjoy hanging out with friends.

Table 1.1 Motivational Reasons to Exercise

What causes behavior?

“Why did she do that?”

“Why do people do what they do?”

Why does behavior

vary in its intensity?

“Why does a person behave one way in a particular situation at one time yet behave in a different way at another time?”

“What are the motivational differences among individuals, and how do such differences arise?”

Two Perennial Questions

Specific questions that

constitute the core

problems to be solved in

motivation study

Needs

Cognition

Emotions

External events

The subject matter of motivation concerns those processes that give behavior its energy and direction.

The four processes capable of giving behavior strength and purpose—its energy and direction—

Motivation

Internal Motives External Motives

Needs Cognition Emotions

Hierarchy of the Four Sources of Motivation

Figure 1. 2

BehaviorBrain &

Physiology Activations

Self-report

Measuring Motivation: Expressions of Motivation

Engagement

Behavioral Expressions of Motivation

.

Engagement

BehavioralEngageme

nt

EmotionalEngageme

nt

CognitiveEngageme

ntVoice

•Attention•Effort•Persistence

•Interest•Enjoyment•Low Anger•Low Frustration

•Sophisticated Learning Strategies•Active Self-Regulation

•Offers Suggestions•Makes Contributions•Asks Questions

Four Interrelated Aspects of engagement

Figure 1.3

Brain activity Activation of brain structures such as the amygdala (fear) or prefrontal cortex (setting goals). Hormonal activity Chemicals in saliva or blood, such as cortisol (stress) or catecholamines (fight‑or‑flight reaction). Cardiovascular Contraction and relaxation of the heart and blood vessels activity (attractive incentives, difficult/challenging tasks). Ocular activity Eye behavior—pupil size (extent of mental activity), eye blinks (changing cognitive states), and eye movements (reflective thought). Electrodermal Electrical changes on the surface of the skin (expression of threat activity or stimulus significance). Skeletal activity Activity of the musculature, as with facial expressions (specific emotion) and bodily gestures (desire to leave).

 Brain & Physiological Activity as Expressions of Motivation

Table 1.3 

Themes in the Study of Motivation

Motivation includes both approach and

avoidance tendencies.

Motives vary over time & InfluenceThe Ongoing Stream of Behavior

EnvironmentalEvent

ArousedMotive

Motive-RelevantCourse of Action

Motive’s UrgencyAttention-Getting

Status

Book Interest Read chapter. *

Cola Thirst Drink beverage. *

Familiar Voices Affiliation Talk with friends.

***

Headache Pain avoidance

Take aspirin. *****

Lack Of Sleep Rest Lie down, nap. *

Upcoming Competition

Achievement Practice skill. **

Table 1.4 How Motives Influence Behavior for a Student Sitting at a Desk

Note: The number of asterisks in column 4 represents the intensity of the aroused motive. One asterisk denotesthe lowest intensity level, while five asterisks denote the highest intensity level.

Motivation is a dynamic process-always changing, always rising and falling—rather than a discrete event or static condition.

Figure 1.4Stream Of Behavior And The Changes In The Strength Of Its

Underlying Motives

Antecedent Conditions

MotiveStatus

Sense of “Wanting to”

Urge toApproach vs.

Avoid

Energizing & Directing

• Behavior

• Engagement

• Physiology

• Self-Report

Needs Cognitions

Emotions

Framework To Understand The Study Of Motivation

Figure 1.5

PracticalProblem

Given What I know AboutHuman Motivation & Emotion

Proposed Solution/Intervention, if any

*Student dropout

*Mediocre Performance

*Theories

*Empirical findings

*Practical experience

*Do I have a strong reason

to believe that my proposed

intervention will produce

positive benefits?

*Do no harm

Using Motivational Theories to Solve Practical Problems