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Chapter 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1. STUDY DESIGN

he problem of wetland biodiversity and sustainable development

forms the fundamental base of the present study, involving three

panchayats namely Kainakari, Edathuva and Ala, in an altitudinal

line from west to east in the Kuttanad wetland system. The comparative

analysis of the data generated has been made so as to gain information on

biodiversity particularly in terms of vegetational wealth as a major

component. The above analysis has been followed by the identification of

the areas for conservation, agroforestry development and occupational

pattern in order to obtain sustainability and compatibility with the ecosystem

has been attempted. Care has been taken to identify traditional knowledge

and technologies, which stand vanished but have the potential to be revived

and made sustainable. It is hoped that the totality of information should result

in evolving micro level biodiversity database in a wetland system and which

could be a model for such studies particularly with wetland, which is one of

the most fragile ecosystems.

6.2. ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL DATA

All the thematic maps included in the thesis were produced using

ArcGIS 9.3 version (GIS software). The geological information presented

covers only the land use pattern and vegetation difference of the study area.

T

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6.2.1. Kuttanad land use

Kuttanad is divided into four zones on ecological basis and six zones on

agro-ecological basis. The land use is a distinguishing feature of a wetland

from which diverse livelihoods have emerged. Paddy is the most suited land

use for livelihoods in covering 26 % of the land area. Kuttanad has an area of

1,10,000 ha, which is divided into four ecological zones (map 03). These with

approximate area are the Garden or dry land (31,000 ha), Wetland (11,000

ha), Reclaimed land situated below sea level (55,000 ha), and Water bodies

including lake, canals, etc. (13,000 ha). The garden land is elevated region

situated at 0.5 to 2.5 m above MSL, where predominant crops are coconut,

cocoa, tapioca, banana, pepper and vegetables (Swaminathan, 2007).

Wetland areas are waterlogged low formations measuring 66,000 ha

and located either above MSL or 0.60 to 2.20 m below MSL, reclaimed from

the surrounding backwaters for paddy cultivation. Of this, 55,000 ha area

below MSL is known as punja lands. These polders reclaimed from Kayal area

with an outer or ring bund are made into cluster of fields called

„Padasekharams‟. Remaining 11,000 ha of wetland is relatively elevated and

forms part of Upper Kuttanad. The punja land located in Kuttanad is further

classified as Karappadam land (33,000 ha), Kayal land (13,000 ha), and Kari

land (9,000 ha). Karappadam lands are areas of alluvial soils situated along

waterways and constitute the lower reaches of the eastern and southern

periphery. Kayal lands constitute padashekharams recently reclaimed from

the Vembanad Lake with elevations between 1.5 to 2.2 m below MSL (map

07).

6.2.2. Land use pattern and vegetation index

The application of GIS in the present investigation is restricted to the

interpretation of land use and vegetational components in the three

panchayats (map 08-10). A comparative study of map shows that there is

thick vegetation in Ala panchayat, gragually reducing in Edathuva and

Kainakari respectively, with increase in water bodies. The above situation is

substantiated by decreasing number of flowering plants, from 392 species in

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Ala, to 360 in Edathuva and 299 in Kainakari. Similarly, the land use for

habitational purposes is high in Ala, less in Edathuva and least in Kainakari.

6.3. ANALYSIS OF BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES DATA

6.3.1. Floral diversity

6.3.1.1. Floral diversity of Kainakari panchayat

299 species of plants belonging to 244 genera and 80 families have

been recorded from Kainakari panchayat and this count comes only 71.3 %

of the total recorded flora. Among these 29.7% (89 species) were wetland

dependent) and 5.3% (16 species) were endemic category. 67% (200 species)

of the total flora recorded from this panchayat were dicotyledons and 33%

(99 species) were monocotyledons (graph 18). Most diversified dicot families

in this panchayat were Euphorbiaceae (12 species), Malvaceae (11 species)

Papilionaceae (10 species) and Verbenaceae (11 species), and monocot

families were Poaceae (33 species) and Cyperaceae (21 species). 64 species

of trees, 51 species of shrubs, 158 species of herbs and 26 species of

creepers/climbers have been noted from the total 299 flora documented

from the panchayat.

6.3.1.2. Floral diversity of Edathuva panchayat

360 species of plants belonging to 273 genera and 98 families were

observed from Edathuva panchayat, of which 24% (87 species) were

included in wetland dependent and 4.4% (16 species) were in endemic

category. 74.7% (269 species) of the total flora recorded from this panchayat

were dicotyledons and 25.2% (91 species) were monocotyledons (graph 18).

Most diversified dicot families in this panchayat were Euphorbiaceae (16

species), Malvaceae (11 species) Papilionaceae (13 species) and

Verbenaceae (11 species), and monocot families were Poaceae (33 species)

and Cyperaceae (21 species). Out of the 360 angiosperms recorded from the

panchayat, 96 species were trees, 76 species were shrubs, 162 species were

herbs and 29 species were climbers/creepers.

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6.3.1.3. Floral diversity of Ala panchayat

Out of 419 species of flowering plants recorded from the three study

panchayats, 392 species (93.5% of total flora) belonging to 279 genera and

100 families could be observed from Ala panchayat, among them only 18.8 %

(74 species) were noted as wetland dependent species and 3% (15 species)

were noted as endemic status. 78% (307 species) of the total flowering plants

recorded from this panchayat were dicotyledons and 22% (85 species) were

monocotyledons (graph 18). Most diversified dicot families in the panchayat

were Apocynaceae (10 species), Caesalpinaceae (10 species),

Euphorbiaceae (18 species), Malvaceae (12 species), Myrtaceae (10

species), Papilionaceae (14 species), Rubiaceae (12 species) and

Verbenaceae (12 species) whereas most diversified monocot families were

Poaceae (29 species) and Cypreaceae (20 species). Classification of the

flora based on the habit showed that 126 species were trees, 82 species were

shrubs, 152 species were herbs and 32 species were climbers/creepers.

6.3.1.4. Comparative analysis

Within wetlands, vegetation is known to be a useful indicator of biotic

integrity (Simon et al., 2001; Albert and Minc, 2004). Plant communities

respond to water quality, hydrologic modifications, chemical pollution, and

nutrient enrichment (Lopez and Fennessy, 2002; Albert and Minc, 2004).

Submergent species richness is affected by high sediment levels, nutrient

enrichment and turbidity, while emergent species also respond to culturally

enriched inputs (reviewed in Van Wieren and Zorn, 2005). Ground vegetation

is acutely sensitive to finer-scale disturbances in microclimate (soil moisture

and temperature), so it is an integral early indicator of changes in wetland

health (Simon et al., 2001; Albert and Minc, 2004).

Of the total 419 plant taxa recorded from the entire study area, 93.5%

(392 species) were observed from Ala panchayat, 74. 7% (360 species) were

observed from Edathuva and 71.3% (299 species) were observed from

Kainakari panchayat. Over a half of the (62%) naturalized vegetations are

common to all the three panchayat with variation in distribution and density.

However, a significant reduction in the species diversity of plants could be

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noted from upper Ala to middle Edathuva and to lower Kainakari panchayats

(Table 24).

Out of 392, 360 and 299 species of flowering plants recorded from Ala,

Edathuva and Kainakari panchayats, 74 species (18.8%), 87 species (24%) and

89 species (29.7%) respectively were noted as wetland dependent plants

(graph 06). Considering nativity status 15 species (3%) of Ala, 16 species (4.4%)

of Edathuva and 16 species (5.3%) were noted as endemic. The above data

showed that the species diversity of wetland dependent plants increased

with increasing areas of wetland from Ala panchayat (upper Kuttanad) to

Kainakari panchayat (lower Kuttanad). Similarly, endemism also showed an

increasing trend from Ala to Edathuva and to Kainakari panchayats (graph

07).

Of the total flowering plants recorded from the three panchayats, 23

were noted as endemic species of which 2 species, namely Ischaemum

travencorense and Ischaemum vembanadense were exclusively endemic to

Kerala (Sunil and Sivadasan, 2009). Further, 19 species of plants were reported

as Globally /nationally threatened species which included Endangered,

Critically endangered, Vulnerable, Rare and Low risk/near threatened

category. Species namely Artocarpus hirsutus, Garcinia gummi-gutta, Hopea

parviflora, Hydnocarpus pentandra, Myristica malabarica and Vateria indica

were recorded as both endemic and threatened category.

The tree species in the study area are reported to be flood tolerant. This

tolerance is exhibited not only in the ability of individual trees to survive a

certain amount of flooding, but also the ability of these species to generate

new trees through root suckering. The use of trees for commercial biomass

production has recently gained interest on agricultural land (i.e. agroforestry).

Planting trees for agroforestry around wetlands may help to extract and

remove excess nutrients. Trees may be even more effective than some

forages, by using more extensive and deeper root systems to recapture deep

leached nutrients (Jeffries and Mills, 1990).

It is very important to note that the tree wealth of Kainakari and

Edathuva panchayat are significantly less than that of the Ala. In Ala

panchayat 126 species of total recorded flowering plants (392 species) are

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trees, shows 32% of the total flora covered tree elements, whereas in

Edathuva and Kainakari panchayats only 96 species (out of 360) and 64

species (out of 299) respectively are noted as in the category of tree. The

results showed that tree wealth of Edathuva and Kainakari panchayat are

much less being 26% and 21% respectively of the total flora. A major concern

with growing trees in this part of the landscape is the risk of flood damage.

This depends on the risk of a flood event, the duration of flooding and soil

saturation, the flood tolerance of the tree species, and the expected harvest

interval of the tree crop.

6.3.1.5. Aquatic macrophytes

An aquatic plant may experience abundant soil moisture during the

entire growing season, but water levels drop during the dry season or summer

months, when these types of plants commonly experience severe water stress

and dormancy if water recedes or soil around the root system becomes very

dry. One or a few species of emergent aquatic plants can dominate the

freshwater community. Most of these grow aggressively via rhizomes or

stolons, crowding out other species. Rhizomes permit these plants to endure

periods of environmental stress, and the rhizome (or corm) is the overwintering

bud of plants growing in cold climates (Jeffries and Mills, 1990).

Under full sun and non-limiting nutrients, a single individual can be

introduced into a water medium and multiply rapidly by vegetative means.

Water-lettuce, Pistia stratiotes, forms new plants around the mother plant

from underwater stolons. Water-hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and floating

fern species of Salvinia and Azolla also show explosive population growth. In

the tropics and quiet waters of ponds and lakes, such species can completely

cover the water surface within several months, and for that reason are

considered pernicious aquatic weeds, which are removed at great expense

and trouble because they clog channels and choke out other forms of life in

the body of water.

Aquatic macrophytes acts as indicators of water quality, reduce

pollution by acting as nutrient pumps, provide suitable breeding and

sheltered places for varied aquatic fauna and support large quantities of

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epiphytic algae. It is also a source of food in the trophic relationships of

wetland ecosystems (Trisal, 1990). Submerged macrophytes also release

oxygen which adds to the dissolved oxygen content of the water. An

important adaptation for many freshwater aquatic plants is the formation of

aerenchyma.

Kuttanad wetland system provides wide a variety of aquatic habitats

like rivers, streams, pools, ponds, paddles, lakes, etc., each harboring

characteristic type of vegetation. Among 91 aquatic/semi-aquatic plants 73

species are common to all the three panchayats and this included both

native and non-native species representing every category of wetland

indicator status (table 25). Dominant wetland dependent taxa common to

the three panchayats are Centella asiatica, Colocasia esculenta, Cyperus

bifax, Cyperus pilosus, Eichhornia crassipes, Fimbristylis ferruginea, Hydrilla

verticillata, Lagenandra toxicaria, Limnocharis flava, Nymphaea pubescens,

Polygonum barbatum and Typha angustata. It is interesting to note that over

97% (89 species out of 91) of the recorded wetland dependent floral

components has been documented from Kainakari panchayat, the area

having expansive paddy fields and water bodies, which forms the ideal

habitat for all kinds of wetland plants. Similarly, Edathuva panchayat

represented 95% (87 species out of 91) of the recorded wetland dependent

plants, the area is somewhat similar to the Kainakari panchayat. On the other

hand, only 80% (74 species out of 91) of the total recorded wetland

dependent floral components could be represented by Ala panchayat, must

be because the area is located in the upper reaches of Kuttanad wetlands.

6.3.1.6. Weed invasion

Many wetland plants fit the definition of “invasive plants” as species or

strains that rapidly increase their spatial distribution by expanding into native

plant communities (Richardson et al., 2000). Most of them not only affect local

biodiversity and ecosystem functioning but also human use and employment

generation. A few affect ecosystem functions both directly and indirectly.

Direct impacts involve canopy height and other attributes of architecture,

shifts from herbaceous to woody plants (or vice versa), increased productivity

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and litter, different litter break down rates, altered nutrient regimes, and either

increased or decreased flammability. Indirect impacts concern associations

with microorganisms such as bacteria and mycorrhizae and larger

invertebrate and vertebrate animals. Invasive wetland plants are generally

assumed to reduce both plant and animal diversity, and excessive weed

growth in the Kuttanad water bodies confirms this assumption (Werner and

Zedler, 2002).

The weed flora provides an indigenous source of fertilizers, acting as soil

conditioner, when utilized as compost manure (Naskar, 1990). In Kuttanad

wetland ecosystems, the aquatic weeds are chiefly responsible for chocking

water bodies, which do not allow water animals such as fish and turtle to

move freely, reduce the productivity by preventing sunlight to reach down to

bottom soil and depleting nutrients, lowering down the amount of dissolved

oxygen and providing shelter to many organisms, e.g. pathogens and

parasites.

Out of 91 wetland plant species recorded, 61 species are ascribed as

weedy elements and which included both native and exotic species. About

10 species of documented aquatic weeds are exotic. Important among them

are Alternanthera philoxeroids, Cabomba carolianiana, Commelina

benghalensis, Eichhornia crassipes, Impatiens diversifolia, Limnocharis flava,

Ludwigia adscendens, Monochoria vaginalis, Pistia stratiotes, Polygonum

barbatum and Sagittaria guayanensis. Albert and Minc (2004) suggested that

coverage of non-native species is a good measure of wetland condition, as

wetlands within heavily urbanized environments tend to be dominated by

non-native species (John, 2011). Ipomoea aquatica, Cyperus pilosus, and

Brachiaria mutica are moderate in abundance and grow in patches or

interspersed in Kainakari and Edathuva panchayats.

6.3.2. phytoplankton resources

6.3.2.1. Diversity and distribution

Phytoplanktons are defined as free floating unicellular, filamentous and

colonial organisms that grow photo-autotrophically in aquatic environments.

They are the basis of food chains and food webs which directly provide food

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for zooplankton, fishes and some aquatic animals (Millman et al., 2005;

Shubert, 1984). The phytoplanktons in a water body are an important

biological indicator of the water quality and also are predominant primary

producers and the basis of the food chain in open water habitats. The

diversity, distribution, abundance and variation in phytoplankton give reliable

information on energy turnover in an aquatic system. Their sensitivity and

substantial variations in species structure often provide an indication of

significant change in ambient conditions within an ecosystem and they are

considered as good indicators of water quality. Phytoplankton studies and

monitoring are useful for the control of the physico-chemical and biological

conditions of the water (Devi et al., 2012).

In the present investigation on the biological resources assessment of

Kuttanad wetlands, a total of 109 species of phytoplanktons are reported

from the three different panchayat locations such as Kainakari, Edathuva and

Ala together. Earlier workers such as George (1958), Nair and Tranter (1971),

Haridas et al. (1973) and Kunjukrishna Pillai et al., (1975) have made an

attempt to determine the status of plankton population in the Cochin

backwaters and Vembanad Lake, but the investigations could not provide

the actual quantitative status of the phytoplankton in the Vembanad lake of

Kuttanad wetlands. The species elements belong to 6 major classes covering

Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyceae,

Dinophyceae and Chrysophyceae. While comparing the species diversity,

Chlorophyceae composed of 60 species, and forms the most diversified class

with 57.79%, from the total phytoplankton group of the study location. 27

species are belonging to Bacillariophyceae (24.77%), 12 species belonging to

Cyanophyceae (11%), 4 species belonging to Euglenophyceae (3.66%) and 3

species belonging to Dinophyceae (2.75%). Class Chrysophyceae

represented by only one species with 0.92%, formed the least diversified class

and was reported only from the lower reaches of Kuttanad wetland namely

Kainakari panchayat.

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6.3.2.2. Comparative analysis of phytoplankton

Phytoplankton can be found all over the world. It can exist in

temperate regions and tropical regions but the effects of different latitudes

on the distribution of phytoplankton are not clear. In temperate latitudes, the

growth of phytoplankton depends on the seasonal cycle. The driving force

and mechanisms of seasonal changes are related to variations in the

physical, chemical and biotic environment, e.g. changes in solar radiation

and nutrient levels. However, in tropical latitudes, the seasonal succession of

phytoplankton species is not as obvious as in temperate latitudes (Harris,

1986). It might be supposed that the growth of phytoplankton in tropical

latitudes depends on ambient nutrient levels more than on other

environmental factors (Morris, 1980). Minimal seasonal variation in day length

and heat income does not prevent remarkable phytoplankton seasonal

cycles in the tropics, where the fluctuations in phytoplankton biomass and

composition are often related mainly to changes in hydrological and

hydrographical conditions, including variations in water level in lakes (Ibanez,

1998; Train & Rodrigues, 1998).

On comparing the three selected panchayats of the study area, the

greatest diversity of phytoplankton observed was from the Kainakari

panchayat, which is the lower most region (- 3 m blow MSL) of Kuttanad

wetlands, where Pamba River joins with Vembanad Lake. A total of 244800,

119500 and 94700 numbers per litre (Nos/L) of phytoplanktons were

encountered from Kainakari, Edathuva and Ala panchayat respectively

(graph 08 and 09). Most dominant class of phytoplankton observed form Ala

and Kainakari were Chlorophyceae with 14 and 49 species respectively, while

the dominant plankton observed from Edathuva was Bacillariophyceae with

14 species. Most dominant phytoplankton species observed from Ala

panchayat was Kirchneriella lunaris (6800 No/L) belonging to Chlorophyceae,

while from Edathuva was Gonatozygon spp. (6500 No/L) belonging to

Bacillariophyceae and from Kainakari was Melosira granulata (6800 No/L)

belonging to Bacillariophyceae. The least diversified class observed from the

three panchayat was Dinophyceae with two genera, namely Gymnodinium

and Peridinium, of which Gymnodinium spp. observed only from Ala

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panchayat. Peridinium tetras observed from all the three panchayats while

Peridinium cinctum was observed from only Edathuva and Kainakari

panchayats.

Many species of freshwater algae may proliferate quite intensively in

eutrophic (i.e. nutrient-rich) waters. However, they do not form dense surface

scums or “blooms,” as do some cyanobacteria. Most adverse health impacts

from recreational use of fresh waters have been associated with

Cyanobacteria rather than with freshwater algae (Reynolds, 1987).

Phytoplankton distributed throughout the water bodies and some groups can

change their positions within their environment in a variety of ways.

Cyanophyceae have worldwide distribution and a majority of species are

cosmopolitan. They are good photosynthesizers and replenish the water with

oxygen. Certain species of this group in freshwater fix atmospheric nitrogen to

supplement with nitrogen requirement (e.g. Anabaena and Nostoc), and

thus, have potential value as bio-fertilizer (Kapoor and Arora, 2000). In the

present study there were 10 species of Cyanophyceae observed form

Kainakari Panchayat, 4 species from Edathuva panchayat while members of

this group were absent in the Ala panchayat during the study period. The

most abundant Cyanophyceaean species observed from both Kainakari and

Edathuva was Oscillatoria limnetica with an average count of 5300 Nos/L. The

presence of Oscillatoria and Merismopedia indicate the beginning of

eutrophication of the water bodies (Ganai et al., 2010).

Euglenoids are almost unicellular, lack a distinct cell wall and possess

one, two or three flagella, they are generally abundant in water rich in

organic matter (Wetzel and Liken, 1991). In present study, Euglenophyceae

formed the least represented group of phytoplankton and observed only in

Edathuva and Ala panchayats, where phosphate, nitrate nutrients were

comparatively higher and salinity is comparatively lower than in Kainakari

panchayat. Euglena acus is the Euglenophycean member which represented

in both Edathuva and Ala panchayat with an average count of 3200 and

4200 Nos/L respectively. Species such as Chodatella subsalsa, Selenastrum

gracile, Spirogyra spp. (Chlorophyceae), Diatoma vulgare, Synedra ulna

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(Bacillariophyceae) and Peridinium tetras (Dinophyceae) were observed

frequently from all the three panchayat of the Kuttanad wetlands.

Some phytoplankton elements such as Arthrodesmus gibberulus,

Chodatella subsalsa, Diatoma vulgare, Euglena acus, Peridinium tetras,

Selenastrum gracile, Spirogyra spp. and Synedra ulna were observed

commonly from both Ala and Edathuva panchayats, while the species such

as Chodatella subsalsa, Diatoma vulgare, Kirchneriella lunaris, Nitzschia

palea, Peridinium tetras, Pinnularia nobilis, Selenastrum gracile, Staurastrum

longipes, Staurastrum sexangulare, Spirogyra spp., Synedra ulna and

Xanthidium perrisacanthum were observed from both Ala and Kainakari

Panchayats. The species observed commonly from both Edathuva and

Kainakari were Chodatella subsalsa, Coelosphaerium dubium, Cosmarium

subtumidum, Diatoma vulgare, Gyrosigma spp., Melosira granulata, Navicula

spp., Oscillatoria limnetica, Pediastrum duplex, Peridinium cinctum, Peridinium

tetras, Scenedesmus dimorphus, Selenastrum gracile, Spirogyra spp., Synedra

acus and Synedra ulna. Distribution of phytoplankton elements in the three

panchayats are given in table 36.

In estuaries, phosphate is introduced by tidal mixing from marine waters

and recycled (Smayda, 1983). According to Nalewajko and Lean (1980),

phosphate inputs do not balance algal uptake during phytoplankton blooms

and concentrations decrease. In the present study, phosphate appears to

represent the nutrient most closely associated with temporal variability in

phytoplankton. Although there are no experimental data to support this

hypothesis, the analysis suggests that phosphate and chloride concentrations

were positively influenced by the phytoplankton distribution, while nitrate,

sodium and potassium concentrations were much less affected.

A significant variation has been noted in class wise and species wise

distribution of phytoplankton in the three study locations of Kuttanad

wetlands. The temperature of the water samples is on an average of 28 0C

and the water medium are slightly acidic in character. Turbidity range (5.71 to

11.59 NTU) showed that water is moderately transparent. All other quality

parameters were within desirable limit. However, a significant and gradual

increase in salinity has been noted from upper Ala (0.037%) to middle

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Edathuva (0,070%) and from there to lower Kainakari (0.167%), whereas a

gradual reduction was observed in hardness, calcium and magnesium from

Ala to Edathuva and to Kainakari panchayats. Phytoplankton diversity was

found to be higher in the water samples collected form Kainakari panchayat

located in the downstream of Pamba river basin. The reason can be

attributed to the lentic nature of aquatic system together with the availability

of nutrients in optimum quantity favoring maximum growth. Harilal (2005)

made similar observation from Karamana and Kallayi rivers of Kerala. The

results also indicated the positive dependence of salinity and negative

dependence of hardness of the phytoplankton population. A gradual

increase in the total count of phytoplankton observed from Ala to Edathuva

and from Edathuva to Kainakari. Total count of phytoplankton from Ala,

Edathuva and Kainakari was 94700 No/L, 119500 No/L and 244800 No/L

respectively (Table 37). A gradual reduction in the total count of class

Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyceae has also been observed in the study

period. The average concentration of water quality parameters and

quantitative analysis of phytoplankton are given in the table 38.

Table 36. Distribution of phytoplanktons in the three panchayats

Class Scientific Name Kainakari Edathuva Ala

1

Cyanophyceae

Aphanotheca saxicola × √ ×

2 Agmellum quadriduplicatum √ × ×

3 Anacystis cyanea √ × ×

4 Aphanocapsa benaresnsis √ × ×

5 Aphanothece pallida √ × ×

6 Botryococcus protuberans × √ ×

7 Coelosphaerium dubium √ √ ×

8 Gloeothece linearis √ × ×

9 Gomphosphaeria aponina √ × ×

10 Merismopedia glauca √ × ×

11 Oscillatoria limnetica √ √ ×

12 Spirulina sp. √ × ×

13

Chlorophyceae

Actinotaenium globosum √ × ×

14 Ankistrodesmus falcatus √ × ×

15 Ankistrodesmus spiralis × √ ×

16 Arthrodesmus gibberulus × √ √

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17 Bambusina sp. √ × ×

18 Chlamydomonas spp. √ × ×

19 Chlorella vulgaris √ × ×

20 Chodatella subsala √ √ √

21 Closteriopsis longissima × √ ×

22 Closterium graute √ × ×

23 Closterium kuetzingii √ × ×

24 Closterium lineatum √ × ×

25 Coelastrum sp. × × √

26 Cosmarium clepsydra √ × ×

27 Cosmarium contractum √ × ×

28 Cosmarium decoratum √ × ×

29 Cosmarium lundellii √ × ×

30 Cosmarium subtumidum √ √ ×

31 Cosmarium viridis × × √

32 Desmidium baileyi √ × ×

33 Desmidium grevillei √ × ×

34 Dictyosphaerium pulchellum √ × ×

35 Dimorphococcus lunatus √ × ×

36 Gonatozygon monotaenium √ × ×

37 Hyalotheca dissiliensis √ × ×

38 Kirchineriella subsolitaria × √ ×

39 Kirchneriella lunaris √ × √

40 Micrasterias alata × √ ×

41 Micrasterias foliaceae √ × ×

42 Micrasterias lux √ × ×

43 Micrasterias radiata √ × ×

44 Micrasterias truncata × × √

45 Mougeotia sp. √ × ×

46 Onychonema laeve √ × ×

47 Oocystis elliptica √ × ×

48 Palmella mucosa × × √

49 Pediastrum duplex √ √ ×

50 Pleudorina sp. √ × ×

51 Scenedesmus arcuatus √ × ×

52 Scenedesmus dimorphus √ √ ×

53 Scenedesmus quadricauda √ × ×

54 Schroederia spp. × × √

55 Selenastrum gracile √ √ √

56 Spirogyra sp. √ √ √

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57 Spondylosium nitens √ × ×

58 Staurastrum arctiscon √ × ×

59 Staurastrum curvatus √ × ×

60 Staurastrum freemanii √ × ×

61 Staurastrum longipes √ × √

62 Staurastrum paradoxum × × √

63 Staurastrum setigerum × × ×

64 Staurastrum sexangulare √ × ×

65 Staurodesmus convergens √ × √

66 Staurodesmus corniculatus √ × ×

67 Staurodesmus glaber √ × ×

68 Tetraedron sp. × √ ×

69 Westella botryoides √ × ×

70 Xanthidium bengalicum √ × ×

71 Xanthidium hastiferum √ × ×

72 Xanthidium perrisacanthum √ × √

73 Xanthidium sp. √ × ×

74

Bacillariophyceae

Asterionella Formosa × × √

75 Achnathes inflata √ × ×

76 Anomoneis spp. × √ ×

77 Asterionella gracillima √ × ×

78 Aulacoseira granulata × √ ×

79 Cocconeis littoralis × √ ×

80 Cyclotella stelligera √ × ×

81 Cymbella prostrata × × √

82 Diatoma vulgare √ √ √

83 Fragillaria crotonensis × √ ×

84 Fragillaria intermedia × √ ×

85 Fragillaria capucina √ × ×

86 Fragillaria virescens √ × ×

87 Gomphonema spp. × √ ×

88 Gyrosigma spp. √ √ ×

89 Melosira granulata √ √ ×

90 Melosira varians × √ ×

91 Navicula sp. √ √ ×

92 Nitzschia palea √ × √

93 Pinnularia nobilis √ × √

94 Rhizosolenia setigera × √ ×

95 Stauroneis anceps √ × ×

96 Stephanodiscus hantzschii × × √

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97 Surirella robusta √ × ×

98 Synedra acus √ √ ×

99 Synedra ulna √ √ √

100 Tabellaria fenestrata √ × ×

101 Tabellaria flocculosa × × √

102

Euglenophyceae

Euglena acus × √ √

103 Phacus tortus × × √

104 Phacus acuminatus × √ ×

105 Phacus longicauda × √ ×

106

Dinophyceae

Gymnodinium sp. × × √

107 Peridinium cinctum √ √

108 Peridinium tetras √ √ √

109 Chrysophyceae Dinobryon sertularia √ × ×

Table 37. Total count of different classes of Phytoplanktons

Kainakari Edathuva Ala

Cyanophyceae 35800 13000 Nil

Chlorophyceae 139500 34400 52900

Bacillariophyceae 61000 56900 26000

Chrysophyceae 3400 Nil Nil

Euglenophyceae Nil 8600 8000

Dinophyceae 5100 6600 7800

Table 38. Comparative analysis of average water quality and planktons

Kainakari Edathuva Ala

Temperature (oC) 28.383 28.104 28.212

pH 6.554 6.23 6.139

Conductivity 54.166 162.166 95.708

Turbidity (NTU) 5.71 8.508 11.595

Salinity (%) 0.167 0.070 0.037

DO (mg/L) 5.528 6.337 6.304

CO2 (mg/L) 20.91 21.833 23.070

Acidity (mg/L) 21.083 27.916 24.166

Alkalinity (mg/L) 76 41.458 50

Nitrate(mg/L) 0.064 5.880 6.693

Phosphate (mg/L) 0.155 0.016 0.024

Calcium (mg/L) 35.790 10.317 9.083

Magnesium (mg/L) 15.284 6.574 5.251

Hardness (mg/L) 58.133 27.333 17.5

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Chloride (mg/L) 56.912 42.369 20.387

Sodium (mg/L) 6.553 10.270 10.762

Potassium (mg/L) 1.686 3.941 3.545

Cyanophyceae (Nos/L) 35800 13000 0

Chlorophyceae (Nos/L) 139500 34400 52900

Bacillariophyceae (Nos/L) 61000 56900 26000

Chrysophyceae (Nos/L) 3400 0 0

Euglenophyceae (Nos/L) 0 8600 8000

Dinophyceae (Nos/L) 5100 6600 7800

Total phytoplankton count (Nos/L) 244800 119500 94700

Total zooplankton count (Units/L) 256 81 35

6.3.3. Diversity and distribution of zooplankton

Zooplankton is a major group in the energy transfer at secondary level

and plays an important role in the secondary production of wetlands. Long-

term variability of zooplankton is significant to differentiate whether these

fluctuations are due to natural causes or due to man made changes. Sharma

and Wilma (2007) studied about abundance of zooplankton in relation to

petroleum hydrocarbon content along the Kollam coast and recorded

maximum zooplankton count of 1390 No/m3 from the Paravoor coast. Madhu

et al. made a detailed analysis on Monsoonal impact on planktonic standing

stock and abundance in a tropical estuary (Cochin backwaters-India) and

detected a strong seasonal impact on zooplankton biomass. Detailed studies

zooplankters in Kuttanad wetland areas are lacking.

In the present investigation zooplankton population was found to be

very low in the study area and this can be attributed to the low abundance

of phytoplankton. The diversity of phytoplankton is of primary importance in

producing the diversity of zooplankton (Das, 1991). The major groups of

zooplankton observed were Nauplius followed by Rotifers, Copepods and

Cladocerans. Rotifers were represented by Brachionus sp., Monostyla sp.,

Polyarthra multiappendicula, Lecane luma and Keratella sp. Nauplius and

Rotifers were dominant during the study season. Dominant group of

zooplankton observed from the three panchayats were Nauplis, Copepods

and Cladocerans.

Maximum number of zooplankton observed from the water bodies of

Kainakari panchayat with 256 units/L followed by Edathuva (81 Units/L) and

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then Ala panchayats (35 Units/L). A significant gradual increase could be

noted in all kinds of zooplankton from upper Ala to middle Edathuva and then

to Kainakari panchayat. 150 Unit/L of Nauplius could be counted from the

water samples of Kainakari panchayat while the count was 46 and 16 Units/L

in Edathuva and Ala panchayats respectively (graph 10 and 11). Copepods

population also showed much variation from Ala to Kainakari panchayat

during study period. Rotifer members namely Monostyla sp. and Polyartha

multiappendiculata were frequently observed from the three panchayat of

the Kuttanad wetlands. A rotifer member namely Brachionus sp. observed

from both Edathuva and Kainakari panchayat but not from Ala panchayat.

Keratella sp. observed only from Ala panchayat while Lecane luma observed

only from Kainakari panchayat, both are the members of Rotifera (table. 32).

Zooplankton population is regulated by both top-down (predation) and

bottom-up (food supply) control. Predation of zooplankton may be a key

determinant of zooplankton seasonal succession (Gliwicz and Pijanowska,

1989). Depending upon the phytoplankton biomass, the zooplankton

population also changes. Various workers have demonstrated a statistical

relationship between the primary producers (phytoplankton) and the main

herbivore (zooplankton) population in various systems. The highest

zooplankton count was noted in monsoon period and it has been shown that

phytoplankton was also found maximum in the same season. Correlation

studies also showed a positive relationship between these two parameters.

McCauley and Kalff (1981) also found a clear correlation between

phytoplankton and zooplankton. In the present investigation also

phytoplankton count varied along with zooplankton count. Zooplankton also

correlated with the nutrient status such as nitrate and phosphate of the study

area.

A positive correlation was obtained between zooplankton and

temperature. Patalas (1972) reported more zooplankton at increased

temperature. Various workers studied relationship between temperature and

Rotifers. Balkhi et al. (1984) found rotifers in water where the temperature was

as low as 50C while Sharma and Srivasthava (1986) recorded rotifers at

temperature as high as 350C. The positive correlation obtained between

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rotifers and temperature during the present study suggests that rotifers prefer

water with high temperature. The Cladoceran population was found to be

scanty in Kuttanad wetlands.

During pre-summer monsoon, high saline waters prevailed over the

estuary due to the incursion of Arabian Sea waters and the lower reaches of

Kuttanad wetlands and salinity becomes slightly higher (Madhupratap, 1987).

However, in the upper reaches, freshwater influx of Pamba River results in low

saline waters. Therefore, a marked salinity gradient was present between

upper and lower reaches of Kuttanad wetland. High saline stations always

formed a single cluster indicating that the zooplankton abundance in the

system is controlled by salinity. Salinity is reported to play a major role in

controlling the distribution of zooplankton in estuaries (Godhantaraman, 1994;

Sujatha and Panigrahy, 1999). Influence of lower salinity on the distribution of

mesozooplankton in Cochin backwater is also well established (Madhupratap

and Haridas, 1975). Preponderance of diatoms in nutrient enriched

environments is noticed many years back (Menzel et al. 1963, Qasim et al.,

1973) and in such conditions dinoflagellates fail to dominate. Dinoflagellates

are known to be „slow growers‟ which are more adapted to oligotrophic

(stratified) waters (Cushing, 1989).

Microzooplankton (20 - 200μm) constitutes a considerable portion of

the zooplankton biomass in marine and estuarine environments (Porter et al.,

1985; Pierce and Turner, 1992). Consequently, there has been an upsurge of

scientific interest on microzooplankton (MZP) worldwide. The biological

production (primary and secondary) becomes intense at low salinities (5-8)

because of their preference to a variety of planktonic organisms (marine,

brackish and fresh water) at low salinity. Hence, the estuaries are always

considered as biologically active zones (Kibirige and Perissinotto, 2003).

Among mesozooplankton, copepods formed the dominant group

(Madhupratap, 1979), with strong seasonality in accordance with the

changes in salinity (Pillai et al., 1973; Madhupratap, 1987). In contrast, some

earlier investigations did not find any relationship between the residence time

of the water, the depth of light penetration and the biomass of the

phytoplankton, which is the most important food-source for the zooplankton

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(Chetelat & Pick, 2006). As the Vembanad water channels in Kainakari down

into the side arms, its speed and the amount of suspended matter decreases,

while the depth of light penetration increases. As a consequence, the

biomass of the phytoplankton increases, providing better food-supply for the

local zooplankton assemblages. High concentration of primary food generally

results in the swarming of a few herbivores/omnivores such as copepods and

amphipods (Goswami and Shrivastava, 1996). Large and expansive water

channels facilitate the growth of greater number of phytoplankton, which in

turn support the zooplankton groups.

6.3.4. Diversity and distribution of butterflies

Butterflies have been regulated as a symbol of beauty and grace

(Khan et al., 2003). These marvelous creatures are found in almost every part

of the world except snow bound areas like Antartica (Rafi et al., 2000). The

present study unveiled a significant assemblage of butterflies including 22

species from Nymphalidae, 10 species from Papilionidae 5 species from

Pieridae and 3 species each from Lycaenidae and hesperidae. The overall

analysis of primary data revealed that Nymphalidae form the major

component contributing significantly 51.16% of total, followed by

Papilionideae (23.25%), Pieridae 11.62%), Lycaenidae (6.97%) and Hesperidae

(6.97%.

A considerable number of butterflies were found during the rice

cultivation season in Kainakari and Edathuva panchayat and a significant

reduction have been noted during the flooded season just after harvesting.

Comparatively higher population of butterflies was noted frequently during

the entire season in Ala panchayat, where expansive paddy fields are not

common. Jorge et al. (2000) reported that the number of Lycaenidae is

common in cultivated fields, dump grass lands, marshes and slow flowing river

banks. These low flying lepidopterans are among the commonest and wide

spread (Goodden, 1977). In the present study two species of Lycaenidae,

namely Castalius rosimon and Jamides celeno are observed in almost all

homesteads and river banks. Nymphalidae and Papilionidedae showed a

cosmopolitan distribution in all over the three panchayat locations. Five

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species of butterflies belonging to Pieridae were often found in all the three

panchayat areas. Two species, namely Tagiades litigiosa and Borbo cinnara

were not observed anywhere from the Kainakari panchayat while a few

numbers of these species were observed from Edathuva and Ala panchayats.

The present investigation made an attempt to study the ecosystem

influence and distribution of butterflies in the wetland area of Kuttanad

ecosystem. The field observations has revealed the presence of 22 species

under Nymphalidae family as the most dominant group and distributed all

over the Kuttanad wetland systems. The overall interpretation of the result

indicated towards the significance of rice fields as potential habitats for a

diverse array of butterflies. Similar results have been found from the study of

Bahaar and Bhat (2011) while studying the community organization and

distribution of Lepidoptera in the rice fields of Kashmir. Among the three study

locations, Ala panchayat (upper Kuttanad) showed greatest collection of

butterflies belonging to all observed families indicate the substantial

dependence of these flies with luxuriant shrub and tree vegetation.

Distribution of butterfly population in the three study panchayat is shown in

table 33.

6.3.5. Diversity and distribution of fishes

Vembanad Fish Count 2009 identified 65 species of fin fishes and 14

species of shell fishes from the Vembanad backwaters (ATREE, 2009). Of the

three selected panchayats, fish population is dominant in Kainakari

panchayat, and the area receives maximum sunlight than the other two

panchayats (Table 34). It has been reported that over the last 30 years, the

fish diversity has reduced from 150 species to 36 species and many are

reported as critically endangered or even extinct in the region (Padmakumar

et al., 1988).

Out of 61 species observed, 73.7% (45 species) are native 21.3% (13

species) are endemic and 4.9% (3 species) are introduced for cultivation. The

introduced species noted from the area are Cirrhinus mrigala,

Ctenopharyngodon idella and Oreochromis mossambicus. Based on IUCN

threatened species (2009), 6 species namely Carinotetraodon travancoricus,

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Labeo dussumieri, Ompok malabaricus, Batasio travancori, Clarias dussumieri

and Horabagrus brachysoma are noted as endangered ones, 5 species

namely Anabas testudineus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Mystus montanus and

Puntius sarana are noted as vulnerable and one species namely Xenentodon

cancilla is noted as risk/near threatened species.

6.3.6. Diversity and distribution of birds

Vast areas of paddy fields and expansive water bodies in the Kuttanad

wetlands provide suitable habitats for many migratory species. Terns, sea

gulls, sandpipers, plovers, teals, etc., are some of the important avian visitors.

Neelakandan (1996) listed out 483 species of birds from entire Kerala, of which

226 species (47%) were reported from Kuttanad wetland itself by Narayanan

et al. (2011). A bird count in 2007-08 listed 27942 birds belonging to 56 wetland

and wetland associated bird species (Sreekumar, 2008). The kayal is home to

the third largest population of more than 20,000 waterfowls that visit India

during winter. Endangered waterfowls that have been identified from the

region are spotbilled pelican, oriental darter, water cock and black billed turn

(Anil Kumar, 2012). Present investigation is restricted to only three panchayats

of the Kuttanad wetlands which are located along line of the Pamba River

basin. Fifty seven species of birds comprising 26 families are recorded from

three panchayat namely Ala, Edathuva and Kainakari during the study

period (2008-2012). Of which 83.6% are noted as resident birds, 10.9% are

migratory and 5.4% are local migratory species. The avian families observed

from the study area were Anatidae, Rallidae, Alaudidae, Capitonidae,

Cerylidae, Charadriidae, Ciconiidae, Motacillidae, Muscicapideae,

Nectaridiidae and Sturnidae. Anatidae possess most diversified family

comprising 6 species followed by Rallidae with 5 species. Detailed analysis

revealed that 67.2% belongs to non-wetland category and 32.7% belongs to

wetland or wetland depended category.

In the Kuttanad wetland greater number of migratory birds is found on

the large paddy fields just after the rice harvesting. Their occurrence

coincides with availability of food which can easily probing into the mud.

Common group of migratory taxa found in the area belongs to Anatidae

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family. Largest number of wetland and migratory birds found in Kainakari

panchayat due to the presence of expansive paddy fields on compared with

the other two areas. Maximum species diversity occurred in Ala panchayat

comprising 50 species, followed by Edathuva (47 species) and Kainakari (46

species). Distribution status of bird population in the three study panchayat

with respect to its ecological status is shown in table 35. While wetland

dependent bird species are dominated in Kainakari. It clearly indicates that

the land birds mostly preferred in the upper areas of Kuttanad wetlands. This

may be due to fewer disturbances, higher water retention for a longer period,

availability of abundant food and more vegetation. Narayanan et al., (2011)

reported that most of the wetland birds were seen at the eastern boundaries

of the Kuttanad. This report is evident from the present study. Six migratory

species observed in the study area are Anas acuta, Anas crecca crecca,

Anas querquedula, Aythya nyroca, Oriolus oriolus kundoo and Porzana pusilla

pusilla. Local migratory species noted are Anas poecilorhyncha, Anhinga rufa

melanogaster and Mycteria leucocephala. All other ornithofauanl

component noted in the area was resident species.

All identified migratory birds were frequently observed from Kainakari

panchayat whereas 5 of them are often observed from Edathuva and only 2

species from Ala. Representative species of all 26 families were observed from

Ala while representatives of 24 families and 22 families were observed from

Kainakari and Edathuva respectively. Acridotheres tristis tristis, Apus affinis,

Centropus sinensis parroti, Columba livia intermedia, Corvus Macrorhynchos

culminates, Corvus splendens protegatus, Eudynamys scolapacea

scolapacea and Passer domesticus indicus are resident non-wetland birds,

(plate 25) and Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus, Alcedo atthis

taprobana, Ardeola grayii grayii , Bubulcus ibis coromandus, Gallinula

cloropus indica, Mycteria leucocephala and Porphyrio porphyrio

poliocephalus were the common resident or local migrant wetland

dependant species frequently found throughout the study area (plate 24).

Porzana pusilla pusilla and Anas crecca crecca were two migrant birds

observed in all the three panchayat during the study period. Anas acuta and

Aythya nyroca are two migratory species observed both from Edathuva and

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Kainakari panchayat. Local migrant species such as Anas poecilorhyncha

poecilorhyncha, Anhinga rufa melanogaster and Mycteria leucocephala

could be observed from the three panchayats of the study area. The species

such as Anhinga rufa melanogaster, Aythya nyroca and Mycteria

leucocephala are listed as near threatened category (IUCN, 2010).

Wetlands in India, as elsewhere, are facing tremendous anthropogenic

pressures (Prasad et al., 2002), which can greatly influence the structure of

bird community (Kler, 2002; Verma et al., 2004; Reginald et al., 2007). Siltation,

pollution and weed infestation are the major threats to the avifauna (Ishwara

Bhat et al., 2009). Presence of people and domestic animals can make

wetlands unacceptable to waterfowl. Major human disturbances to wetlands

bird habitat include the use of motor vehicles and other machines, including

motorboats, in or adjacent to wetlands; spring burning or cultivation of open

lands near water; hunting; and drainage, dumping or other destruction of

wetlands.

The loss of habitat through direct and indirect anthropogenic activities

causes immense threat to the birds especially the migratory birds of Kuttanad.

Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has rapidly covered the water surface

especially in the Kainakari panchayat reducing the feeding areas for water

birds. All possible threats of ornithofaunal population in Kuttanad wetlands

and their conservation measures are elaborated in the study of Narayanan et

al., (2011). According to their study major threats of wetland birds in Kuttanad

wetland ecosystem are landscape alteration, hunting overgrowth of exotic

vegetation, pesticide from agricultural field, felling of nesting and roosting

trees and tourism. It is obvious to understand that conservation and

management efforts have focused on legal protection, habitat

management, population management, and human dimensions, and all

must be used concurrently to be effective. Our focus here is habitat

management, which has been used for different purposes but is often aimed

at species management when, at least for wetlands, most management

influences the entire community.

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6.4. ANALYSIS OF LIVELIHOOD RESOURCE DATA

6.4.1. Livelihood in General

Agriculture is the primary source of income generation of the three

panchayats. With extensive paddy fields, the existing agricultural practices in

the three study panchayats are dominated by paddy cultivation followed by

coconut. Fruit trees like mango, jack-fruit, tamarind and tuber crops like

tapioca, Amorphophallus, Colocasia and plantains are cultivated in the

elevated areas adjoining the paddy fields and also in the homesteads. These

are also cultivated as intercrops in coconut plantations. Pepper is also

cultivated although rarely due to poor yield and its susceptibility to continuous

flooding in the area especially in Kainakari panchayat. Besides, other

vegetable crops ornamental plants are cultivated widely in the homesteads

of all the three panchayats.

Another major livelihood practice which is common to the Kainakari

and Edathuva panchayat is fishery, which is confined to only during rainy

seasons in Ala panchayat. The water bodies in Edathuva and Kainakari area

are nutrient rich and have optimum temperature and sunlight availability,

which offer favorable environment for the luxuriant growth of fishes, prawns

and other aquatic organisms. But due to the intense pollution and lack of

salinity intrusion, there is a considerable reduction in the fish wealth of the

area. Moreover, destruction caused due to heavy floods and the lack of

proper marketing facilities has made the fishermen dissatisfied with fishing.

Kerala is the top producer of lime shells in India. Although, occurrences

of lime shells are reported from almost all backwater systems of Kerala,

economically viable deposits are confined to the Vembanad Lake. Lime shell

is being mined from this lake since long (Rasalam and Sebastian, 1976). Two

types of shells are being extracted – the white shells and the black shells. The

white shells are sub fossil clam shells inter-layered within the late Quaternary

deposits, whereas black shells are exoskeletons of living clam Villorita sp.,

which occur abundantly in shallow lake beds. These shells are commercially

dredged for cement industries and also harvested as a means of livelihood of

the people. Ravindran et al., (2006) reported annual production of 30,000-

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40,000 tonnes of black clam and 7000 tones of shell fish from the region. They

calculated that approximately 20,000 fishermen are directly or indirectly

involved in the exploration of aquatic resources with an annual revenue of Rs.

100 million. Shell mining of black shell is an important occupation of the

Kainakari panchayat, which does not occur in Edathuva and Ala

panchayats. Two inland lakes situated as a part of Vembanad Lake in the

Kainakari panchayat forms the prime location of shell in the area. The shell

occurs 1-1.5 meter deep in the clayey soil in lakes. The shell forms the

important source of calcium oxide, silicon dioxide and manganese oxide.

Many industries based on this resource are established in the State and.

Optimum salinity is important for the growth of shells, but the changes in the

level of salinity that have occurred has affected their growth.

There are several other means of livelihood and which are common in

all the three panchayats such as community, social and personal services;

mining and quarrying; real estate; post and telecommunication; health and

social work; educational services; public administration and national defense;

wholesale and retail trade; utilities supply and other activities.

6.4.2. Sustainable Agriculture

With paddy cultivation as the dominant agricultural activity, its

sustainability is paramount with modern tools, scientific and technical

knowledge and there is abundant scope for increasing paddy production.

Adding to paddy are coconut and an array of tree and agricultural

crops like mango, plantain and vegetables together providing new scopes

for introducing sustainable agriculture in the area, which with small

homesteads, is viable options.

Kuttanad area being below sea level including the three panchayats in

the study area has received much attention for sustainable agriculture

practices, which include integrated agriculture, modern mechanization,

intercropping and mixed cropping both at home and farm levels particularly

with regard to major crop like paddy and coconut. Some medicinal and

spices like pepper and nutmeg which together offered opportunities for the

156 | P a g e

sustainability in the agricultural produce and livelihood issues. Bund cultivation

of agricultural crops also contributes to the above situation.

In Kuttanad, double cropping of rice may not always be feasible due to

floods during the monsoon and this combined with low returns from rice

cultivation due to the high cost of land lease and labour has tempted the

farmers to abandon one crop of rice and instead culture fish and/ or prawn

during the season, leading to increased benefits. The ideal season for rearing

fish and prawns in the rice fields of Kuttanad appears to be March to

October. This arrangement also reduces the production cost of rice since the

soil is soft and clean, after the fish/ prawn harvest and allows immediate

seeding and transplanting. Prawn filtration in the adjoining rice fields of

backwaters is a unique feature of the inland fisheries of Kerala. An inland

water channel based fish farming model existed in the Kuttanad wetland has

been depicted in figure 01.

6.4.3. Agroforestry

An area which has not received focus of attention is agroforestry, which

will give a new dimension to the Kuttanad area as a whole and the study

panchayats in particular. It has been noticed that the whole wetland system

is poor in tree wealth which has affected not only economic gains but also as

an impact on environmental conditions particularly with reference to climate

change. The increased tree wealth will increase the green cover of the leaf/

canopy which will absorb more CO2 and other trace gases and emit O2

which in turn has an amelioraating effect of the climate change problem in

which the area is vulnerable.

The survey and study of the selected panchayats revealed the nature

of existing agroforestry practices and typical models, which throw light on the

scope of developing sustainable agroforestry packages in these wetland

areas. A unique feature of the existing agroforestry pattern in the lowland

zone is the traditional practice of pisciculture in ponds within homesteads.

Pisciculture in such ponds of area ranging from 5 to 10 cents in home garden,

are promising income generating activity that helps utilize the advantages of

natural resources in a sustainable manner. Similarly the abundant growth of

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the different varieties of Nymphaea and Nelumbo, which are of high

horticultural value in, ponds and other small water bodies (including

abandoned paddy fields) characteristic of the area offer great scope in

projecting aqua-floriculture as an ecologically compatible and economically

viable agroforestry operation for the lower Kuttanad areas (Kainakari

panchayat). Home gardens of middle Kuttanad (Edathuva panchayat) and

upper Kuttanad (Ala panchayat) areas possess an assortment of fruit crops,

medicinal plants, timber plants and other plants of economic importance, of

which timber yielding fruit trees are dominant owing to its multipurpose utility.

Typical home garden models of these areas possess optimum plant resources

with effective land utilization and having a direct bearing on economic

sustainability.

In Kuttanad area natural agroforestry practices have been observed,

which do not as such occur in the three panchayats studied. However, the

feasibility of introducing agroforestry practices in the three panchayats and

connected areas of Kuttanad are high. Based on the physiographic pattern

of the three panchayats agroforestry practices need to be appropriately

planned and implemented, and model proposals are presented in figure 02

to 06.

Considering the three panchayat models agroforestry proposal ought

to be designed for Kainakari panchayat in such a way that it conforms with

small level holdings in all of which there has to be provision for a modest

house for living surrounded inevitability by coconut and even a pond for

fishing (figure 02). There can be various combinations of vegetable crops like

plantain, Moringa and Carica papaya together with a few tree elements

(Garcinia gummi-gutta) of medicinal and timber (Artocarpus heterophyllus)

value. However, there can be various combinations of lesser utilized fruit crops

or even floriculture plants as per the aesthetic desire of the residents and

conforming with the land availability. Kainakari is typically a rural setup and

the various land holders put together can bring about considerable rural

development under the guidance and support of concerned panchayats.

The panchayat Edathuva was a mixture of small holdings and medium

holdings more or less similar to that of Kainakari (figure 03 and 04). This

FIGURE 02: HOMESTEAD AGROFORESTRY MODEL FOR LOWER KUTTANAD (KAINAKARI PANCHAYAT)

Cn: Cocos nucifera Ce: Colocasia esculentaMpa: Musa paradisiacaMp: Moringa pterygospermaMi: Mangifera indicaTp : Thespesia populneaHr: Hibiscus Hr: Hibiscus rosa-sinensisAct: Areca catechuAh: Artocarpus heterophyllusAo: Anacardium occidentaleAe: Ailanthus excelsaCp: Carica papayaPg: Psidium guajavaGg: GaGg: Garcinia gummi-guttaMk : Murraya koenigiiVz: Vetiveria zizanioidesSma: Swietenia macrophyllaPd: PondH: House

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panchayat has a slight influence of the urban culture as detected by tourists

and worshipers coming to the Edathuva church and there is a proliferation of

housing structures. However, this also remain a rural setup in general and

therefore a planned approach in developing agroforestry and to be

engaged in other occupations like fish farming could be in support of the

overall development of the rural system.

The Ala panchayat is vast in available area for development and

marked also by the influence of the nearby township of Chengannur and of

the continued flow of people living all over the place. The land holding

include large size of one acre and above (figure 05) and also medium and

even small holdings and thus the panchayat area is of mixed land holding.

Accordingly there is a scope for plantation development of which the rubber

found a place. Taking the entire panchayat together the land area has a

common presence of coconut particularly around the large or smaller houses

and also wherever open lands are available. There are a large number of

institutions found in the panchayat, the land holdings of which are planted

with mango and other trees like tamarind. The residential houses with medium

level holdings (figure 06) can hold mixed cropping of various combinations of

economic/agroforestry related plants which will bring about a viable

opportunity for green belting.

Although the area is influenced by urbanization, it still remains a rural

setup in which all the three panchayat taken together can evolve rural

development models in the homsteads, bunds (figure 07) and all other open

places wherever possible. The all round selection of lesser utilized plant

resources/economically viable medicinal plants and resource of conservation

value (Bacopa monnieri) can be promoted for cultivation. Apart from the

scientific programmes opinion from the local peoples and farmers have been

recorded for the sustainable management of agriculture, and presented here

in Appendix 02.

Another area of sustainable development of food resources which should

recieve consideration is Integrated Farming System (IFS). Integrated farming

system has revolutionized conventional farming of livestock, aquaculture,

horticulture, agro-industry and allied activities (Chan, 2006). It could be crop-

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fish integration, livestock-fish integration, crop-fish-livestock integration with

combinations of crop, livestock, fish and other enterprises (Olele et al., 1999).

The benefits of IFS over those of traditional farming system (Ugwumba and

Orji, 2006), cannot be over emphasized. Though agricultural systems are

better practiced on large expanse of land, subsistence farmers notable for

their small holdings can equally engage in them, especially those involving

homestead fish ponds (Ugwumba, 2005). This is because IFS has been

confirmed to reduce cost of production and thus increase farmer‟s

productivity, income, nutrition and overall welfare (Tokrishna, 2006). Existing

integrated cropping practices in the Kuttanad wetlands are depicted in plate

32.

Culturally the cultivation of coconut is a homestead affair practiced in all

house holdings so also are some trees like Mangifera and Garcinia apart from

field crops like plantain and other vegetables crops. Similarly, the lower

income groups of people practice fish farming, duck farming and poultry

farming. As an occupation toddy tapping is also common in all the three

panchayats. All the proposed models when properly integrated and put into

practice will substantially produce greater results in terms of generation of

finance and environmental betterment. The hazards of climate change may

also to some extend lessened by increase in tree wealth.

The scope for effective rural development as presented in the agroforestry

models together with innovative models under the concept of integration of

agriculture, aquaculture, floriculture, silviculture and pastoral systems. Some

integrated agriculture practices suited for Kuttanad wetlands as a whole and

the study panchayats in particular are Aqua-silvo pastoral system, Aqua-flori

pisci-culture and Agro-silvo-pastoral system, which has been schematically

shown in figure 08, 09 and 10 respectively.

Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture (IAA) systems is the integration of

aquaculture with fruit, rice, and livestock can help to improve the use made

of local natural resources and to increase the contribution of inland

aquaculture to total agricultural production in Kuttanad wetlands. In areas

where irrigation facilities are not available, a second crop of rice is possible by

constructing water storage areas within the field. Compared to many

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technologies, rice-fish culture is a low-risk technology. It demands little money,

is not particularly new for most rice farmers and involves few conflicts with

other farm activities. Rice-fish culture conserves water. Rice-fish culture saves

farmers time, allowing them to undertake income-generating activities or to

improve on existing ones. Rice yields are usually enhanced, although there is

great variation from farm to farm. Yields are very rarely adversely affected

when the farmer manages the system well. Apart from Integrated rice-fish

farming some other sustainable practices which are suited for the Kuttanad

wetlands are integrated grass-fish farming, integrated pig-grass-fish farming,

integrated fish-duck farming, integrated fish-horticulture and fodder-fish

integration.

6.5. ANALYSIS ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

6.5.1. Seasonal/occasional flooding

Floods are a regular phenomenon during the monsoon period due to

the discharge of large quantities of river water into Kuttanad. As the north-east

monsoon recedes, the area is exposed to tidal incursion of saline water from

the Arabian Sea through the Kochi bar mouth, making the wetland ecosystem

predominantly saline. The Kuttanad agro system, therefore, is faced with serious

problems of hydrology, floods and salinity. Monsoon season brings with it the

perennial problem of floods, endangered by the region's four major rivers,

Pampa, Achenkovil, Manimala and Meenachil, which together drain the

water into the Vembanad Lake and empty into the Arabian Sea through the

Cochin estuary.

The entire study area is prone to flood. During rainy season, floods are

usual in the entire lowland region and so rice cultivation is possible only once

a year. Floods often damage the bunds causing submergence of the paddy

fields and loss of crops. So, cultivation is limited to only one crop per year at

many places in the area (IIRDS, 1978). Agriculture in the area is mainly

dependent on weather conditions and therefore unexpected rainfall and

flooding cause destruction of crops. As a measure to reduce the hazardous

effects of floods, the outer and inner margins of the paddy field should be

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strengthened by constructing stone walls, which is a common practice of the

area (Alexander et al., 2010). Selected views of hardship of occasional

flooding in Kuttanad wetland systems are shown in the plate 33.

6.5.2. Sacred grove degradation

Sacred forest being possibly remnants of natural vegetation needs

special efforts in conservation. Considering the three study panchayats in

Alappuzha district, Kainakari panchayat holds three minor sacred groves

associated with homesteads and are protected by the local people. In Ala

panchayat there are two major sacred groves of about 30 cents each

associated with temples and three minor sacred groves associated with

homesteads, whereas in Edathuva panchayat there are no sacred groves.

Major threats in the existence of sacred groves in the area are the brake up

of ancestral joint family systems to nuclear families and partition of family

properties along with the changing socio-economic scenario.

Weakening of beliefs, faiths and taboos associated with these groves

has added the intensity of its destruction. Due to the disappearance of

traditional belief systems sacred groves and their structures are now

considered mere superstitions. Profuse regeneration of exotic invasive species

such as Lantana camera, Chromolaena odorata, Acacia auriculiformis,

Leucaena leucocephala, etc. hamper the native species of groves, which

also contribute to the destruction of the sacred groves.

The state of Kerala from time immemorial has nurtured a very divine

and aesthetic line of protection of sacred groves, which was intermingled

with religious ways of social activities and worships. Such sacred groves are to

be protected from the angle of biodiversity also and the existing sacred

groves are the only islands of conservation amidst vast stretches of degraded

ecosystems apart from the forests.

6.5.3. Impact of clay and shell mining

Though the downstream area of Pamba River comes under the purview

of the present study, sand mining is a major problem in the downstream area

of the river especially in Kainakari panchayat. Although mining activities

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deplete DO of the water column, the effect will be predominant in

mechanical mining areas. In land areas, the lime shell mining operations

create certain negative impacts in land use, landscape and land stability.

Sand and clay mining in good paddy lands cause serious losses to agricultural

production, often irreversibly. Sand and clay mining as also shell mining is

prevalent in Kainakari panchayat, alone in the study area, and the activity

ought to be controlled, so as to avoid ill effects from the activity, but is

continued sustainably.

6.5.4. Pesticide pollution

Due to the intensive attempt to enhance food production increased

pressure was put on land in various means. The growing human and animal

populations are making increasing demand on natural resources resulting in

the exploration of resources in unsustainable manner (Swaminathan, 1991). It

is a known fact that excessive use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers

increasingly polluting agricultural products and infertile the agro-ecosystems.

Variable explosion in the wide use of harmful chemicals has led to many

problems like development of resistance to pesticides in target species, pest

resurgence, secondary pest outbreak and above all the environmental

pollution (Abduraheem and Rehman, 2007).

Being a most productive agricultural and aquacultural area, pesticide

pollution is the most serious in Kuttanad wetland system and needs to be

considered as a prime threat. From the farmers opinion major pesticides used

in Kuttanad agricultural field are Organo-phosphorus such as Asataf,

Dimecron, Ekalux, Hostathion, Malathion, Monocrotophos, Nuvacron, Rogor

and Metacid Synthetic, Pyrethroids such as Ambush, Tatareeva, Trebone and

Karate, organo-chlorins such as Lanite and Lindane. Excessive use of

pesticides in Kuttanad creates several human health effects as well as fish

diseases. In addition to that several useful organisms and the natural enemies

of crop pest have also vanished with the excessive use of pesticides. A study

undertaken by the Thiruvananthapuram Medical College has reported very

frequent cases of cancer of the lip, stomach, skin and brain, lymphoma,

leukemia and multiple myloma from the Kuttanad rice area of Kerala, linking

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the same to high pesticide use in the area (Indira Devi, 2007). Over reliance of

to synthetic pesticides without proper understanding of its consequences may

lead to an era of agricultural disaster in the long run than to an era of

agricultural prosperity.

6.5.5. Impact of tourism

The whole area of Kuttanad is being exploited for tourism and river

connecting to Kainakari to Edathuva at least could be considered to

enhance tourist traffic, targeting ancient monuments like Edathuva Church.

At the same time there is still scope for identifying tourism interest spots in all

the three panchayats. However, growing water tourism in the Kuttanad

wetland area especially Vembanad lake may cause a rapid urbanization

that increases demand for protected land or land adjacent to wetlands. This

can cause damages to wetland hydrology and water quality due to

drainage or fill activities on adjacent lands for construction of buildings and

parking lots. Additionally, the increasing demand for food may lead to more

intensive agricultural and fishing methods, with negative impacts on land use,

and the quality and the quantity of water.

6.5.6. Impact of Invasive alien species

Kuttanad wetlands are infested with an array of alien invasive species.

Of all invasive weed species, aquatic weeds are perhaps the most harmful.

Among these the floating plants such as Eichornnia crassipes (water

hyacinth), Pistia stratiotes, and Salvinia molesta are most common and most

aggressive weed elements. Currently, Eichornnia crassipes is the chief weed

element causing very serious threat to the Kuttanad water bodies (Kerala

Sastra Sahithya Parisht, 1978). Growth of these plants affects water quality,

depleting the dissolved oxygen, prevents entry of light into water column

affecting fish reproduction and survival and posing increased risks to human

health. Loss of oxygen from the water increases its acidity and, as a result,

aquatic biodiversity starts to decline. Aquatic weeds do not get wiped out

because of absence of saline intrusion. The thick weed mats make fishing

impossible and disrupt water transport and irrigation systems. More hazardous

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to humans is the risk of diseases (such as malaria and cholera), as the weeds

provide an ideal breeding ground for the vectors (e.g. mosquitoes and snails).

6.5.7. Thanneermukkam salt water barrage

The Thanneermukkam saline water barrier was designed in 1975 with a

good intension to prevent salinity intrusion into the southern part of the

Vembanad backwater system (Kuttanad) in the dry season and also to retain

the fresh water from the rivers flowing into the estuary. The structure has been

relatively successful in keeping the water in the Kuttanad fresh and enabling

cropping in the dry season to be increased. It has affected the natural fish

breeding activities in the area (Kurup et al., 1990). In fact, before the

construction of the Thanneermukkam barrage, the saline intrusion cleanses

out the water systems in many ways, preventing the growth of fresh water

aquatic weeds (Anilkumar, 2007). Moreover, the migration routes of marine

fish and prawns are interrupted by the barrier, its gates being closed during

the pre-monsoon period when maximum upstream migration takes place,

which has affected the fish production of Kainakari and Edathuva among the

study panchayats.