Making OralPresentations

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he key to a successful oral presentation is to keep things simple.I try to stick to three points. I give an overview of the points,present them to the audience, and summarize them at the end.

My purpose and the audience mix determine the tone andfocus of the presentation, the kind of vi-

als,the number of anecdotes, and the jokes or ex-pies that I use. Most of my presentations are de-gnedto sell, to explain, or to motivate. When I planepresentation, I think about the audience. Are theyIOfessionalsor nonprofessionals? Purchasers or sell-? Providers or users? Internal or external?

Luis Lamela makes presentationsto a variety of internal and externalaudiences including medicalprofessionals, providers, clients.CAC Medical Centers,headquartered in Coral Gables,Florida, is a comprehensive medicaldelivery network comprised of 28single- and multispecialty medicalcenters in south Florida. It is afederally qualified healthmaintenance organization (HMO).Its parent company is UnitedHealthCare Corporation, a nationalleader in health care management.

"My purpose and the audience mix determinethe tone and focus of the presentation. ~ ~

WhenI make a presentation, I use the visuals as the outline. I will not usetes.I like to select the kind of visual that not only best supports the message1 also best fits the audience and the physical location. Power Point, slides,'erheadtransparencies, and flip charts are the four main kinds of visuals I use.PowerPoint and slide presentations work well when I am selling a product

If anidea to large groups (15 people or more). In this format, I like to use ex-piesand graphs and tables to support my message in a general way.Insmall presentations, including one-on-ones and presentations where theudienceis part of the actual process, I like transparencies or flip charts. Theylow me to be closer to the audience and to be-more informal.Igetvery, very nervous when I speak in public. I handle my nervousness by

usltrying to look as if, instead of talking to so many people, I'm walking in and. g to a single person. I don't like to speak behindJecterns. Instead, I like to

~Ioutand just be open and portray that openness: ''I'm here to tell you a story./II try not to lecture but to use anecdotes, and I think that people find themteresting and relate better to them. For example, our multispecialty medical

t€nlersdiffer according to the demographics of the area. In Hispanic areas,amination rooms need to be bigger because as Hispanics we bring the con-~plof the extended family right into the examination room. But if we're go-g10 build a center in an Anglo area, exam rooms will be smaller.I try very hard for people to enjoy my presentations by showing enthusi-

om on the subject and by being sincere. In addition, it helps that I am speak-gabout something that I very strongly believe in and something that I re-y, really enjoy doing.

Make Your MessageMemorable*

At a beverage conference in Spain,Nick Rosa, then president of The Nu-traSweet Company, began, "Everytime I practice soccer with my sons,aged seven and eight, I am remindedof the generation game, When I con-sider my area of expertise, my boysrepresent this new generation per-fect~y' First, they're young, Second,they're thirsty, Third, they have grownup with diet drinks in the fridge,"Then Nick launched into his speech,Six months later he met a confer-ence delegate who greeted him bysaying, "How's it going? I haven'tseen you since that great speechwhere you talked about your kids,"

By adding a personal touch, Nickhelped make his speech memorable,

*Quoted from Elizabeth Urech, SpeakingGlobally: Effective Presentations AcrossInternational and Cultural Barriers(Dover, NH: Kogan Page, 1998),31,

The power to persuade people to care about something youbelielin is crucial to business success. Making a good oral presentationmore than just good delivery: it also involves developing astratthat fits your audience and purpose, having good content, andganizing material effectively. The choices you make in eachofth

areas are affected by your purposes, the audience, and the situation.

Oral presentations have the same three basic purposes that written documenhave: to inform, to persuade, and to build goodwill. Like written messagmost oral presentations have more than one purpose.

Informative presentations inform or teach the audience. Training sessioin an organization are primarily informative. Secondary purposes maybepersuade new employees to follow organizational procedures, rather thanding something their own way, and to help them appreciate the organizatioculture (zz p. 62).

Persuasive presentations motivate the audience to act or to believe.Gi\'information and evidence is an important means of persuasion. In additithe speaker must build goodwill by appearing to be credible and sympathto the audience's needs. The goal in many presentations is a favorable ratedecision. For example, speakers making business presentations may trytopersuade the audience to approve their proposals, to adopt their ideas, or tobutheir products. Sometimes the goal is to change behavior or attitudes ortore-inforce existing attitudes. For example, a speaker at a meeting of factoryll'orers may stress the importance of following safety procedures. A speakerachurch meeting may talk about the problem of homelessness in the commuruand try to build support for community shelters for the homeless.

Goodwill presentations entertain and validate the audience. In anaftdinner speech, the audience wants to be entertained. Presentations atmeetings may be designed to stroke the audience's egos and to validatethcommitment to organizational goals.

Make your purpose as specific as possible.Weak: The purpose of my presentation is to discuss saving for retirement.

Better: The purpose of my presentation is to persuade my audience to put their 401KfundsIn sand bonds, not in money market accounts and CDs,

or: The purpose of my presentation is to explain how to calculate how much moneysomecneeds to save in order to maintain a specific lifestyle after retirement.

Note that the purpose is not the introduction of your talk; it is the principleguides your choice of strategy and content.

Giving a presentation is in many ways very similar to writing a message,of the chapters up to this point-on using you-attitude and positive emphdeveloping reader benefits, analyzing your audience, designing slides,0\

coming objections, doing research, and analyzing data-remain relerantyou plan an oral presentation.

A written message makes it easier to

• Present extensive or complex financial data.• Present many specific details of a law, policy, or procedure.• Minimize undesirable emotions.

In an after-ons at salesalidate their

lessage. All~emphasis,lides, over-relevant as

Oralmessages make it easier to

Useemotion to help persuade the audience.focusthe audience's attention on specific points.\nswerquestions, resolve conflicts, and build consensus.~lodifya proposal that may not be acceptable in its original form.Getimmediate action or response.

Oraland written messages have many similarities. In both, you should

\dapt the message to the specific audience.ihowthe audience how they would benefit from the idea, policy, service,orproduct.Overcomeany objections the audience may have.Useyau-attitude and positive emphasis.Usevisuals to clarify or emphasize material.pecifyexactly what the audience should do.

strategyis your plan for reaching your specific goals with a specific audience.malloral presentations, simplify what you want to say. Identify the one ideaIII want the audience to take home. Simplify your supporting detail so it's'y ta follow. Simplify visuals so they can be taken in at a glance. Simplifyurwords and sentences so they're easy to understand.Anaral presentation needs to be simpler than a written message to the same~dience.If readers forget a point, they can turn back to it and reread the para-laph.Headings, paragraph indentation, and punctuation provide visual cueshelpreaders understand the message. Listeners, in contrast, must rememberhatthe speaker says. Whatever they don't remember is lost. Even asking ques-insrequires the audience to remember which points they don't understand.Analyzeyour audience for an oral presentation just as you do for a writtenessage.If you'll be speaking to co-workers, talk to them about your topic orIOposalto find out what questions or objections they have. For audiences in-dethe organization, the biggest questions are often practical ones: Will itork? How much will it cost? How long will it take?lThinkabout the physical conditions in which you'll be speaking. Will the au-eneebe tired at the end of a long day of listening? Sleepy after a big meal?illthegroup be large or small? The more you know about your audience, thetteryou can adapt your message to them.Forexample, Matt Hession knew that his audience of pharmacists didn'tantta talk to salespeople. So he devised a one-minute presentation which he'ersas entertainment-and as a challenge. Figure 17.1 gives his script. He'esoffhis watch to drive home the point that he really will take only a minutethepharmacist's time. He starts off with reader benefits (:cc p. 72) and uses~'ehalogicaldescription (:cc p. 233) so that the pharmacists can see them-Il'esenjoying those benefits. Because the commission structure is compli-ted,that goes in a handout rather than in the presentation itself. When he callsnextweek, he says, "This is Matt. I did the one-minute presentation .... TheyI'aysremember me." And 90% of them eventually sign contracts.

What CEOs Learn aboutPresentations*

Executives preparing to take theircompanies public make scores ofpresentations in dozens of townsover a few short weeks. The pur-pose of this "road show" is to intro-duce the company to investmentprofessionals-persuading them tobuy, or at least to chart, the stock.

To prepare for these crucial pre-sentations, many CEOs take lessons.Four days of intensive training fromone expert costs $20,000. Here aresome of the lessons three CEOslearned:

• Trip Hawkins, CEOof The 300 Co.'I had to suppress my 'ums' and'ahs'-people don't know howmany times they use those inconversation. And I have a ten-dency to look around toomuch-my eyes were ziggingand zagging around the room. '

• Scott Cook, Chairman of Intuit'If I got negative questions, I'dget defensive and put a chill onthings .... He taught me thatwhen somebody asks a nega-tive question, restate it posi-tively, answer it positively. ,

• Timothy Koogle, CEO of Yahoo!'He had me ... loosen up. Getrid of the podium deathgrip .... Connect with the audi-ence physically, with my eyesEncourage them to drink in areally important slide by havinga big pause in my speech. '

'Quotations quoted from Quentin Hardy,"Meet Jerry Weisman, Acting Coach toCEOs," The Wall Street Journat, April 21,1998, B1.

~ooseone of three basic kinds of presentations: monologue, guided discus-n,ar interactive.

*"When I walk into a store, I spot the clerk closest to the pharmacist. Because the pharmacist is behind thecounter, I can't get to him directly. So I speak loudly, and I know he is overhearing what's going on. If I walkin looking like a salesman, the pharmacist immediately thinks, 'I don't want to buy anything or talk to you.' InullifiJ that feeling right off the bat. The pharmacist thinks, 'He's entertainment. It's only a minute, and itdoesn't cost anything.' I'm not threatening anymore. Customers smile; they want to hear what I have to say. Itake off my watch to show that I'm serious. "

My name is Matt Hession with Key Medical. I know the pharmacist is real busy. Butwhen he has a moment, I have a one-minute presentation. (Start to take off watch.)Andhe can leave his wallet in his pocket.

*"As I walk behind the counter, I try to assess how promising a partner this would be. How busy is the place?Is it handling any medical equipment-like walkers-already? Is the back of the store neat, clean, and wellorganized? I'm also thinking of anything I can quickly add to personalize the presentation. For example, ifthere is a pediatrician next door, I'll point out that we handle nebulizers-small machines used by kids withasthma--and that we can get same-day approval on Medicaid. I hold up my watch again to emphasize that I'mserious about this taking only one minute."

(The clerk acknowledges and relays the request. But the pharmacist has overheard theconversation. "I'llbe with you in a bit," he says. A couple of minutes later, he motions forme to step behind the counter. As we shake hands, I introduce myself again and hold upthe watch.)

*"I am telling the pharmacists that this is something the chains do not have. This strikes an ill/mediate note.Independent pharmacists, who are usually also the store owners, complain that chains like Wal-Mart havecertain advantages. Now, they think, they will have an edge. They have two questions: How much time will ittake? How l1/uch will it cost me? I answer those right up front."

We're in the home-medical-equipment business. Our company has developed aprogram just for independently owned community drugstores. Our program costsyounothing and takes up very little of your time.

Here's how it works: a customer walks into your store and sees one of the signs that weprovide to you, indicating that you can get customers any type of home-medicalequipment. The customer inquires about a home oxygen system that her father needs.You answer, "Let me get our equipment partner on the phone for you." You dial our 800number and tell us who you are, the name of your store, and its location. Then you giveus your customer's name and her question. We either talk to the customer right thereorcall her at home-your choice. We see if we can answer her questions and help tomeether needs. If it results in a sale or rental, we deliver the equipment, and we teach thecustomer how to use it. We do the insurance filing or billing. We service the equipment.The whole nine yards. Your job is to educate your customers that they can obtain home-medical equipment through you.

*"It would take longer than a minl/te, obviously, to explain the commission structure. There are three differentscenarios--a sale, a rental, or a lease-to-own option--and I can't cover those in under two minutes. And withcustomers in earshot, we don't have privacy, anyway. But I will give answers on two questions thepharmacists often ask: Where is your home office, and how do you deliver these things? The details are veryclearly spelled out in the material I give them."

Here's a copy of our partnership agreement. It spells out your commission structure aswell as other important concerns.

Whendiet, or

In a monologue presentation, the speaker speaks without interruption;estionsare held until the end of the presentation, where the speaker func-nsas an expert. The speaker plans the presentation in advance and deliverswithoutdeviation. This kind of presentation is the most common in class sit-lions,but it's often boring for the audience. Good delivery skills are crucial,eethe audience is comparatively uninvolved.LindaDriskill suggests that guided discussions offer a better way to presentaterialand help an audience find a solution it can "buy into." In a guided dis-sian,the speaker presents the questions or issues that both speaker and au-eneehave agreed on in advance. Rather than functioning as an expert with1theanswers, the speaker serves as a facilitator to help the audience tap its1\Inknowledge. This kind of presentation is excellent for presenting the re-ultsof consulting projects, when the speaker has specialized knowledge, buteaudience must implement the solution if it is to succeed. Guided discus-:onsneed more time than monologue presentations, but produce more audi-eeresponse, more responses involving analysis, and more commitment toresult.2Aninteractive presentation is a conversation, even if the speaker stands upfrontof a group and uses charts and overheads. Most sales presentations areteractivepresentations. The sales representative uses questions to determineebuyer's needs, probe objections, and gain provisional and then final com-:litmentto the purchase. Even in a memorized sales presentation, the buyer'illtalk at least 30% of the time. In a problem-solving sales presentation, toplespeople let the buyer do 70% of the talking up until the action close:a p. 286).3

easurethe message you'd like to send against where your audience is now.youraudience is indifferent, skeptical, or hostile, focus on the part of youressagethe audience will find most interesting and easiest to accept.Don'tseek a major opinion change in a single oral presentation. If the audi-

meehas already decided to hire an advertising agency, then a good presenta-oneanconvince them that your agency is the one to hire. But if you're talkingasmallbusiness that has always done its own ads, limit your purpose. Youay beable to prove that an agency can earn its fees by doing things the owner't do and by freeing the owner's time for other activities. A second presen-

lionmay be needed to prove that an ad agency can do a better job than theallbusiness could do on its own. Only after the audience is receptive shouldoutry to persuade the audience to hire your agency rather than a competitor.Makeyour ideas relevant to your audience by linking what you have to saytheirexperiences and interests. Showing your audience that the topic affectsemdirectly is the most effective strategy. When you can't do that, at least linketopicto some everyday experience.

Whenwas the last time you were hungry? Maybe you remember being hungry while you were on adiet, or maybe you had to work late at a lab and didn't get back to the dorm in time for dinner.

nning a Strong Opening and Closehebeginning and end of a presentation, like the beginning and end of a writ-document, are positions of emphasis. Use those key positions to interest thedienceand emphasize your key point. You'll sound more natural and more

Adapting the Presentationto the Audience*

When Jerry Stackhouse turned pro,many companies made presenta-tions designed to sign him to repre-sent their products. Fila won, in partbecause of a presentation and visu-als specifically adapted to Mr.Stackhouse,

During his initial presentation toMr, Stackhouse, Fila executive HoweBurch placed a poster directlyacross from where Mr. Stackhousewas sitting, It listed the names of 18NBA Nike endorsers in fuzzy, hard-to-read type. But there was no mis-taking the slogan printed in big let-ters: "Looks like the Swoosh [Nike'slogo] is becoming a blur. At Fila,Stackhouse will be a Standout."

Mr, Burch also brought along aprototype of the Stackhouse shoe, amodel that was ready to go intoproduction but just needed a name.At a second meeting, Mr. Burch ar-rived carrying a paper bag that heplaced on a side table. Mr. Stack-house asked, "Is that my shoe inthe bag?"

Fila knew right then that it hadMr, Stackhouse in the bag, too,

'Paragraphs 2-4 quoted from RogerThurow, "A Rookie Guard Scores Big atMarketing," The Wall Street Journal,February 9, 1996, A6,

Strategy for a CorporateSpeech*

Securitydirectorsofthe 50 mostprominentinternationalbanksmeetperiodicallytodiscusscommonproblems.BankAmerica'sBobBeckwantedto talkto the groupaboutchemicaldependencyandBankAmerica'sapproachto theproblem.

Audience's initial position: Re-sistant.Mostfavoredtesting,nottreatment.

One point to leave with audi-ence: Treatmentisa practicalal-ternativethatworks.

Adapting message to audi-ence: Usedtermsfromsports,banking,andsecurityto makeiteasyforaudienceto identifywithmessage.Backeduppointswithdetailsand statistics.Explainedproblemsofdrugtesting.Didnotask foraction.

Opener: Hard-hittingstatisticsonhowmuchchemicaldependencycostsUSbusinesses- $26 billiona year.

Outline: (1) Chemicaldependencyas a disease;thesizeofthe prob-lem;testingas the usualresponse.(2) BankAmerica'streatmentap-proach:policy,programdesign,andeducationintheworkplace.(3) Thebusinessadvantagesoftreatment:protectsinvestmentintrainedpeo-ple;confinesbusinesslossescausedbychemicaldependency.*Based on Robin Welling, No Frills, NoNonsense, No Secrets (San Francisco:International Association of BusinessCommunicators, 1988), 290-93.

effective if you talk from notes but write out your opener and close in advancand memorize them. (They'll be short: just a sentence or two.)

Consider using one of the four modes for openers that appeared in Chapter1startling statement, narration or anecdote, question, or quotation. The moreyou can do to personalize your opener for your audience, the better. Recentevents are better than things that happened long ago; local events are bettthan events at a distance; people they know are better than people whoareonhnames.

This presentation to a company's executive committee went on to show thatthe company's distribution system was inadequate and to recommend a thirdwarehouse located in the Southwest.

A mother was having difficulty getting her son up for school. He pulled the covers over his head."I'm not going to school:' he said. "I'm not ever going again.""Are you sick?" his mother asked."No:' he answered. "I'm sick of school. They hate me. They call me names. They makefunofme

Why should I go?""I can give you two good reasons:' the mother replied. "The first is that you're 42 yearsold.And

the second is you're the school principal. ,,4

This speech to a seminar for educators went on to discuss "the three knottiproblems in education today." Educators had to face those problems; thecouldn't hide under the covers.

This presentation to a group of potential clients discusses the value of u mthe services of a professional financial planner to achieve one's goals fretirement.

According to Towers Perrin, the profits of Fortune 100 companies would be 25% lower-they ddown $17 billion-if their earnings statements listed the future costs companies are obligatedtofor retirees' health care.

This presentutives to sta

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'presentation on options for health care for retired employees urges exec-esto start now to investigate options to cut the future costs.louropener should interest the audience and establish a rapport with them.espeakers use humor to achieve those goals. However, an inappropriatecanturn the audience against the speaker. Never use humor that's di-edagainst the audience. In contrast, speakers who can make fun of them-esalmost always succeed:

Humorisn't the only way to set an audience at ease. Smile at your audience1reyou begin; let them see that you're a real person and a nice one.:heend of your presentation should be as strong as the opener. For your'f-, you could do one or more of the following: (1) restate your main point;referto your opener to create a frame for your presentation; (3) end with aod,positive picture; (4) tell the audience exactly what to do to solve theblemyou've discussed. The following close from a fund-raising speechJlbinesa restatement of the main point with a call for action, telling the au-neewhat to do.

ilain andsimple, we need money to run the foundation, just like you need money to develop new prod-xIs,We need money to make this work, We need money from you, Pick up that pledge card, Fill itut, Turnit in at the door as you leave, Make it a statement about your commitment, , , make it a big:ialement.6

Whenyou write out your opener and close, be sure to use oral rather thannttenstyle. As you can see in the example close above, oral style uses shortertencesand shorter, simpler words than writing does. Oral style can evenJIlda bit choppy when it is read by eye. Oral style uses more personal pro-

, a less varied vocabulary, and more repetition.

5ualscan give your presentation a professional image. As more and more'inessesbuy computer graphics packages, more and more presentations useesor overhead transparencies, which, confusingly, are often called slides,,Youdesign the graphics on your computer, then give the disk to a serviceJreauthat produces slides. As color printers become more common, business~plewill be able to produce color overhead transparencies in-house.Onestudy showed that presenters using overhead transparencies were per-il'edas "better prepared, more professional, more persuasive, more credible,dmoreinteresting" than speakers who did not use visuals. They were alsorelikely to persuade a group to adopt their recommendations? A studymparingthe use of different kinds of visuals found that presenters usingesappeared more professional, but presenters using overhead transparen-seemed more interesting. Colored overhead transparencies were most ef-

tivein persuading people to act.sseat least 14-point type for transparencies; 18-point is even better. If pos-

Ie,use a square area for your text or visual, rather than the whole verticaloe,so that your transparency will fit on the screen without your having tolYe it. For PowerPoint slides, use 44-point type (or larger) for titles and main~ds.Your smallest subheading should be no smaller than 28-point type.

Cultural Styles ofPresentations*

When you make an internationalpresentation, be sensitive to yourhost country's cultural preferencesfor presentations,

In Japan, speak in a modest, per-sonal, conversational style. Look atthe whole group; remember that theoldest person is probably the mostimportant. Plan carefully so thatyour presentation fits in the avail-able time-and remember that in-terpretation cuts your actual speak-ing time in half.

In Sweden, don't save points for aquestion-and-answer session.Swedes consider it rude to ask ques-tions at the end of a presentation: todo so suggests the speaker has notbeen clear. Instead, include all yourmaterial in the body of the presenta-tion. The best close is a well-craftedquestion that applies the materialfrom the presentation, leaving theaudience something to think about.

<Based on Bronwen Jones, Doing Busi-ness in Japan: An ABC for Better Com-munications ([Tokyo:] JETRO, 1991), 16;and H. Ned Seelye and Alan Seelye-James, Culture Clash (Lincolnwood, IL:NTC Business Books, 1995),30-31.

Well-designed visuals can serve as an outline for your talk (seeFigurer.eliminating the need for additional notes. Plan at most one visual forereminute of your talk, plus two visuals to serve as title and conclusion.Don'tto put your whole talk on visuals. Visuals should highlight your mainpOlOnot give every detail.

Use these guidelines to create and show visuals for presentations:

• Make only one point with each visual. Break a complicated point downinto several visuals.

• Give each visual a title that makes a point.• Limit the amount of information on a visual. Use 35 words or less;use

simple graphs, not complex ones.• Don't put your visual up till you're ready to talk about it. Leave it upun

your next point; don't turn the projector or overhead off.

See Chapter 6 for information on designing slides and Chapter 16 forin!mation on how to present numerical data through visuals.

(@)see the BAC Web site for links to sites on how to use advancedPOIPoint techniques and for backgrounds, graphics, and MIDIsyouuse royalty-free in your presentations.

Choose twers th

points.ubpoin

lationshitoryalsmto the

'Iiuals work only if the technology they depend on works. When you give: ntations in your own office, check the equipment in advance. When you'e a presentation in another location or for another organization, arrivelysothat you'll have time not only to check the equipment but also to track111 a service worker if the equipment isn't working. Be prepared with a'kupplan to use if you're unable to show your slides or videotape.IOUcan also involve the audience in other ways. A student giving a presen-onon English-French business communication demonstrated the differ-e in US and French handshakes by asking a fellow class member to come10 shake hands with her. Another student discussing the need for low-saltucts brought in a container of salt, a measuring cup, a measuring spoon,twoplates. As he discussed the body's need for salt, he measured out three

'poons onto one plate: the amount the body needs in a month. As he dis-'ed the amount of salt the average US diet provides, he continued to mea-out salt onto the other plate, stopping only when he had lY.; pounds of

I-the amount in the average US diet. The demonstration made the dis-ancyclear in a way words or even a chart could not have done.9 To makethat his employees understood where money went, the CEO of a specialtylingshop in Algoma, Wisconsin, printed up $2 million in play money anddedout big cards to employees marked Labor, Depreciation, Interest, and so.Then he asked each "category" to come up and take its share of the rev-

ues.The action was more dramatic than a color pie chart could ever have.10 Another speaker who was trying to raise funds used the simple act ofg people to stand to involve them, to create emotional appeal, and to

'ea statistic vivid:

speaker]wastalkingto a luncheonclub about contributingto the reliefof an area that had been hitatornado.Thenews report said that 70% of the people had been killedor disabled.The roomwas~up[with]ten peopleat each round table. Heasked three persons at each table to stand. Then hed."... Youpeoplesittingare dead or disabled.Youthree standing have to take care of the mess .. dneedhelp,wouldn'tyoU?"11

ee Figure 172)isual for e\ ersion. Don't tryr main point e the information that is most interesting to your audience and that an-

,: the questions your audience will have. Limit your talk to three mainmls.ina long presentation (20 minutes or more) each main point can haveJpoints.Your content will be easier to understand if you clearly show the re-mshipbetween each of the main points. Turning your information into a".also helps. For example, a controller might turn charts of financial datathefollowing story:

tions:

oint down

,Increaseinsales incomeis offset byan increase in manufacturingcosts. Why?Because the cost"'1aterialisoutof line.Materialcosts for product#503 tripled last month.Ananalysis of the three

showsthat the cost of materials jumped 800% on the second shift. Now,the problem is to.outwhythe second shift uses so much more material than the other shifts making the same

1.12Ivanced Po", rIDls you can

'lCk Up each point with solid support. Statistics and numbers can be con-109 if you present them in ways that are easy to hear. Simplify numbers byxing them to two significant digits.

Howdoyoupersuadeinvestors,bankers,andsecuritiesanalyststowantto investinyourcompany?Youtellthema story.

PresentationcoachJerryWeissmanleadsbusinesspeoplethroughan entiredayonidentifyingthebeststory.Presentationskills(likebuildinginpausesso listenerscanabsorbinformation)comelater.

Beforecoaching,clientDavidAngeldescribedhiscompanylikethis:"InformationStorageDevicesprovidesvoicesolutionsusingthecompany'sunique,patentedmultilevelstoragetechnique.... "

Aftercoaching,Angerstartedhispresentationthisway:"Wemakevoicechips.They'reextremelyeasytouse.Theyhaveunlimitedapplications.Andtheylastforever."·Based on Dan Gillmor. "Putting on aPowerful Presentation," Hemispheres,March 1996,31-32.

An Alternativeto PowerPoint*

[OnceBarbaraWaughhadanalyzedhersurveydata-po 367-she hadtoplana presentation.JButhowcouldshecaptureandcommuni-catewhatshe'dlearned?Howcouldshesharethispowerfulcri-tiquewithseniormanagement?ThelastthingshewantedwastopreachthroughPowerPoint.Soin-steadofcreatingbullet-pointslides,shedrewonherexperiencewithstreettheatreandcreateda "play"aboutHPLabs.Sheworkedpas-sagesfromthesurveysintodia-logueandthenrecruitedexecutivestoactas staffmembers,andjuniorpeopletoactas executives.Thetroupeperformedfor30seniormanagers."Attheendoftheplay,themanagerswereveryquiet,"Waughremembers."Thentheystartedclapping.Itwasexciting.Theyreallygotit.Theyfinallyun-derstood."

'Quoted from Katherine Mieszkowski, "IGrew Up Thinking That Change WasCataclysmic. The Way We've Done itHere is to Start Slow and Work Small."Fast Company, December 1998, p. 152.

Hard to hear: If the national debt were in pennies, it would take 17,006,802,720 people,eachcarrying 100 pounds of pennies, to carryall of our debt.

Easier to hear: If the national debt were in pennies, it would take 17 billion people,eachcarrypounds of pennies, to carryall of our debt.13

In an informative presentation, link the points you make to the knowleJyour audience has. Show the audience members that your informationswers their questions, solves their problems, or helps them do their jobs.\\'you explain the effect of a new law or the techniques for using a new machmuse specific examples that apply to the decisions they make and the workthdo. If your content is detailed or complicated, give people a written outlinehandouts. The written material both helps the audience keep track of 10

points during the presentation and serves as a reference after the talk isolerQuotations work well as long as you cite authorities whom your audlen

genuinely respects. Often you'll need to paraphrase a quote to put it into_pIe language that's easy to understand. Be sure to tell whom you're citing:/I

cording to Al Gore," "An article in Business Week points out that," and sofaDemonstrations can prove your points dramatically and quickly. During

investigation of the space shuttle Challenger disaster, the late physicist RichaFeynman asked for a glass of water. When it came, he put a piece of the SFshuttle's a-ring into the cold water. After less than a minute, he took it outanpinched it with a small clamp. The material kept the pinched shape whenclamp came off. The material couldn't return to its original shape.14 A technical explanation could have made the same point: the a-ring couldn't functiin the cold. But the demonstration was fast and easy to understand. It didnrequire that the audience follow complex chemical or mathematical formuIn an oral presentation, seeing is believing.

To be convincing, you must answer the audience's questions and objectio

Some people think that working women are less reliable than men. But the facts showthatworrtake fewer sick days than men do.

However, don't bring up negatives or inconsistencies unless you're surethe audience will think of them. If you aren't sure, save your evidence forquestion phase. If someone does ask, you'll have the answer.

Most presentations use a direct pattern of organization, even when the gIla!to persuade a reluctant audience. In a business setting, the audience 1 mhurry and knows that you want to persuade them. Be honest about your~and then prove that your goal meets the audience's needs too.

In a persuasive presentation, start with your strongest point, your bestson. If time permits, give other reasons as well and respond to possible ations. Put your weakest point in the middle so that you can end on a trnote.

Often one of five standard patterns of organization will work:

• Chronological. Start with the past, move to the present, and end bylooking ahead .

• Problem-causes-solution, Explain the symptoms of the problem, idenits causes, and suggest a solution. This pattern works best when theaudience will find your solution easy to accept.

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lCiudingalternatives. Explain the symptoms of the problem. Explain therioussolutions first and show why they won't solve the problem. Enddiscussinga solution that will work. This pattern may be necessaryhenthe audience will find the solution hard to accept.

rro-con.Give all the reasons in favor of something, then those against it.. pattern works well when you want the audience to see the weaknessesitsposition.

·2·3.Discuss three aspects of a topic. This pattern works well to organizeortinformative briefings. "Today I'll review our sales, production, andralitsfor the last quarter."

\lakeyour organization clear to your audience. Written documents can bead;theycan use headings, paragraphs, lists, and indentations to signal lev-01detail.In a presentation, you have to provide explicit clues to the struc-01 your discourse.

Earlyin your talk-perhaps immediately after your opener-provide anerviewof the main points you will make.

:t.l'd like to talk about who the homeless in Columbus are. Second, I'll talk about the services TheShelterprovides. Finally, I'll talk about what you-either individually or as a group--ean do to

P

luloverviewprovides a mental peg that hearers can hang each point on. Itcanprevent someone from missing what you are saying because he or shederswhy you aren't covering a major point that you've saved for later.Is

Offera clear signpost as you come to each new point. A signpost is an ex-:itstatement of the point you have reached. Choose wording that fits youre.Thefollowing statements are four different ways that a speaker could usemtroducethe last of three points:

Jwwe cometo the third point: what you can do as a group or as individuals to help homeless peo-inColumbus.

ivering an Effective Presentationdienceswant the sense that you're talking directly to them and that you care:theyunderstand and are interested. They'll forgive you if you get tangledma sentence and end it ungrammatically. They won't forgive you if you

Creation1. Think of your last summary slide

first-then make sure each ofthose key bullet points areclearly explained in the body ofyour presentation.

2. Use simple, clear graphics andpictures of familiar people tocapture attention and build au-dience identification.

3. Get someone else to checkspellings and the logical flow ofyour slide show. Another pair ofeyes will often pick up an errorthat you have missed. '

Presentation1. Practice, Practice, Practice.

Rehearse several times-aloudand standing up, with the sameequipment you will use for yourpresentation.

2. Make eye contact with morethan one audience member dur-ing the course of your presenta-tion.

3. Always carry backup disks ofyour presentation program, yourslide show, and any specialfonts that were used in its cre-ation.

'Quoted from Shonan Noronha and JohnRhodes, "Power Presentations."Presentations. special advertising sec-tion, n.p.

Being Interviewedby Ute Press*

Business people and communityleaders are often interviewed by thepress, To appear your best on cam-era, on tape, or in a story,

• Try to find out in advance whyyou're being interviewed andwhat information the reporterwants,

• Practice answering possibleQuestions in a single sentence,A long answer is likely to be cutfor TV or radio news,

• Talk slowly, You'll have time tothink, the audience will havemore time to understand whatyou're saying, and a reportertaking notes will record yourwords more accurately,

• To reduce the possibility of be-ing misquoted, bring along acassette recorder to tape the in-terview, Better still, bring two-and offer to give one tape to theinterviewer.

'Based on James L, Graham, "What toDo When a Reporter Calls," IABCCommunication World, April 1985, 15;and Robert A. Papper, conversation withKitty Lockyr, March 17, 1991,

seem to have a "canned" talk that you're going to deliver no matter whoaudience is or how they respond. You can convey a sense of caring toyourdience by making direct eye contact with them and by using a conversatistyle.

Dealing with FearFeeling nervous is normal. But you can harness that nervous energytohyou do your best work. As one student said, you don't need to get ridof)butterflies. All you need to do is make them fly in formation.

To calm your nerves before you give an oral presentation,

• Be prepared. Analyze your audience, organize your thoughts, preparevisual aids, practice your opener and close, check out the arrangement

• Use only the amount of caffeine you normally use. More or less maymayou jumpy.

• Avoid alcoholic beverages.• Relabel your nerves. Instead of saying, ''I'm scared," try saying, OM)

adrenaline is up." Adrenaline sharpens our reflexes and helps us doourbest.

Just before your presentation,

• Consciously contract and then relax your muscles, starting with yourfeetand calves and going up to your shoulders, arms, and hands.

• Take several deep breaths from your diaphragm.

During your presentation,

• Pause and look at the audience before you begin speaking.• Concentrate on communicating well.• Use body energy in strong gestures and movement.

Using Eye ContactLook directly at the people you're talking to. In one study, speakers IIlooked more at the audience during a seven-minute informative speech\judged to be better informed, more experienced, more honest, and friendlithan speakers who delivered the same information with less eye contactAn earlier study found that speakers judged sincere looked at the audien63% of the time, while those judged insincere looked at the audience only~of the time.17

The point in making eye contact is to establish one-on-one contact withtheindividual members of your audience. People want to feel that you'reting to them. Looking directly at individuals also enables you to be morecscious of feedback from the audience, so that you can modify your approachnecessary.

People will enjoy your presentation more if your voice is easy to listentll~find out what your voice sounds like, tape-record it. Also tape the voicepeople on TV or on campus whose voices you like and imitate them. Ina tweeks, tape yourself again.

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Organizations such asToastmasters Internationalhelp members becomemore effective speakers byproviding a good place topractice their skill andreceive feedback fromtheir peers.

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:;eorgeFluharty and Harold Ross suggest three ways to find your bestakingvoice:

Joseyour ears with your fingers and hum up and down the scale untilJU find the pitch where the hum sounds loudest or most vibrant to you.JUspitchwill be near your optimum pitch.'mgdown the scale as far as you can go without forcing. Call this note dodsingup the scale to sol. This note will be near your optimum pitch.

:youhave a piano, locate the lowest note you can produce and also your19hestfalsetto note. Your optimum pitch will be approximately one fourthfthedistance from your lowest note.1S

Shenyou speak to a group, talk loudly enough so that people can hear youly. Ifyou're using a microphone, adjust your volume so you aren't shout-',Whenyou speak in an unfamiliar location, try to get to the room early so;cancheck the size of the room and the power of the amplification equip-.t.Ifyou can't do that, ask early in your talk, "Can you hear me in the back:heroom?"le bigger the group is, the more carefully you need to enunciate, that is,ceaHthe sounds of each word. Words starting or ending withf, t, k, v, andreespeciallyhard to hear. "Our informed and competent image" can sound'Ourinformed, incompetent image."

Ioenunciate,use your tongue and lips. Researchers have identified 38 dif-:ntsounds. Of these, you make 31 with your tongue and 7 with your lips.1earemade with the jaw, so how wide you open your mouth really does-matter.If the tongue isn't active enough, muscles in the throat try to com-sate,producing sore throats and strained voices.19

When you make a presentation onvideo, be informal and friendly.Look at the camera when you talkto create the effect of making eyecontact with the audience.

Since the sound reproductionequipment may deaden voices,make a special effort to vary pitchand expression. Don't interrupt an-other speaker. Two people talking atthe same time on camera producegibberish.

Dress for the camera.

• Don't wear white. Only very ex-pensive cameras can handlepure white.

• Don't wear bold stripes, checks,plaids, or polka dots.

• Don't wear large accessories.

• Red, blue, and green photo-graph well. If an entire outfit inred seems too bold, considerwearing a red tie or blouse.

'Based on Robert A. Papper, conversa·tion with Kitty Locker, March 17, 1991.

Tongue twisters can help you exercise your tongue and enunciatemclearly. Stephen Lucas suggests the following:

• Sid said to tell him that Benny hid the penny many years ago.• Fetch me the finest French-fried freshest fish that Finney fries.• Three gray geese in the green grass grazed .• Shy Sarah saw six Swiss wristwatches.• One year we had a Christmas brunch with Merry Christmas mush to

munch. But I don't think you'd care for such. We didn't like to munchmush much.2oYou can also reduce pressure on your throat by fitting phrases to youride

If you cut your sentences into bits, you'll emphasize words beginning\\1

vowels, making the vocal cords hit each other. Instead, run past wordsbe,ning with vowels to emphasize later syllables or later words:21

Choppiness we must take more responsibility nothurts vocal Qlly forcords: (Alrselves

And(Alr families but for(Alr communitiesAnd(Alr country.

We must take moreResponsibilityNot only for ourselves and ourFamilies but for ourCommunities and ourCountry.

You can reduce the number of uhs you use by practicing your talkseIertimes. Filler sounds aren't signs of nervousness. Instead, say psychologitColumbia University, they occur when speakers pause searching for theneword. Searching takes longer when people have big vocabularies or talkabotopics where a variety of word choices are possible. Practicing your talkmayour word choices automatic, and you'll use fewer UhS?2

Vary your volume, pitch, and speed. Speakers who speak quickly andI

vary their volume during the talk are more likely to be perceived as comtent.23 Sound energetic and enthusiastic. If your ideas don't excite you,IIshould your audience find them exciting?

Smoothphrasingprotectsthroat:

Standing and GesturingStand with your feet far enough apart for good balance, with your knflexed. Unless the presentation is very formal or you're on camera, youcwalk if you want to. Some speakers like to come in front of the lecterntomove that barrier between themselves and the audience.

Build on your natural style for gestures. Gestures usually work bestIlhthey're big and confident.

Using Notes and VisualsUnless you're giving a very short presentation, you'll probably want tonotes. Even experts use notes. The more you know about the subjectgreater the temptation to add relevant points that occur to you as youAdding an occasional point can help to clarify something for the audience

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Putyour notes on cards or on sturdy pieces of paper. Most speakers like to-l-by-6-inchor 5-by-7-inch cards because they hold more information. Yourneed to be complete enough to help you if you go blank, so use long

ra esor complete sentences. Under each main point, jot down the evidenceIllustrationyou'll use. Indicate where you'll refer to visuals.~ookat your notes infrequently. Most of your gaze time should be directedJlembersof the audience. Hold your notes high enough so that your head.n't bob up and down like a yo-yo as you look from the audience to your'esandback again.Uyou have lots of visuals and know your topic well, you won't need notes.:JOssible,put the screen to the side so that you won't block it. Face the audi-,e,notthe screen. With transparencies, you can use colored marking pens to.attentionto your points as you talk. Show the entire visual at once: don'terup part of it. If you don't want the audience to read ahead, prepare sev-lll'isuaisthat build up. In your overview, for example, the first visual could·yourfirst point, the second the first and second, and the third all three'I1ts.·eepthe room lights on if possible; turning them off makes it easier for peo-tofallasleep and harder for them to concentrate on you.

ndling QuestionsDarefor questions by listing every fact or opinion you can think of that chal-esyour position. Treat each objection seriously and try to think of a way to

11withit. If you're talking about a controversial issue, you may want to savepointfor the question period, rather than making it during the presenta-

· Speakerswho have visuals to answer questions seem especially well pre-'c'<!.Juringyour presentation, tell the audience how you'll handle questions. Ifuhavea choice, save questions for the end. In your talk, answer the ques-:lS orobjections that you expect your audience to have. Don't exaggeratelIclaimsso that you won't have to back down in response to questions later.Juringthe question period, don't nod your head to indicate that you un-tanda question as it is asked. Audiences will interpret nods as signs that.agreewith the questioner. Instead, look directly at the questioner. As youwerthe question, expand your focus to take in the entire group. Don't say,at'sa good question." That response implies that the other questions havepoorones.

::theaudience may not have heard the question or if you want more time to:u<,repeatthe question before you answer it. Link your answers to the points. madein your presentation. Keep the purpose of your presentation ind, and select information that advances your goals.':aquestion is hostile or biased, rephrase it before you answer it. "You'regwhether.... " Or suggest an alternative question: "1 think there are prob-withboth the positions you describe. It seems to me that a third solutionchisbetter than either of them is .... "~casionallysomeone will ask a question that is really designed to state theer's own position. Respond to the question if you want to. Another op-tosay, ''I'm not sure what you're asking," or even, "That's a clear state-

tofyour position. Let's move to the next question now." If someone asksutsomething that you already explained in your presentation, simply an-.rthequestion without embarrassing the questioner. No audience will un-landand remember 100% of what you say.

On behalf of Greenpeace USA,Christopher Childs gives more than100 presentations a year toschools, colleges, and churches.

"For the question-and-answerperiod, I try to stay in touch withour campaigners to find out what'smost important. But I also try tostay aware of my personal motiva-tions. When I'm very clear aboutwhat I want to accomplish, thequestions take care ofthemselves ...

"Occasionally I get hostile ques-tions, and while I try to deal ,On afactual level with the issues, I lookto see if I can tell what's going onwith the person. Oftentimes they'renot hostile at all, but very con-cerned. When it's workable in apublic forum, I might suggest tothem what I hear them really say-ing. Often they really appreciate theeffort."

'Quoted from Jess Wells, "StagePresence: Professional Speakers ShareTheir Techniques," Publish, December1990,82

your knerat you canctern to r

If you don't know the answer to a question, say so. If your purpose isform, write down the question so that you can look up the answer belornext session. If it's a question to which you think there is no answer, askllone in the room knows. When no one does, your "ignorance" is vindical,an expert is in the room, you may want to refer questions of fact to himaAnswer questions of interpretation yourself.

At the end of the question period, take two minutes to summarize yourpoint once more. (This can be a restatement of your close.) Questions m'may not focus on the key point of your talk. Take advantage of having the:to repeat your message briefly and forcefully.

Making Group PresentationsPlan carefully to involve as many members of the group as possible in spting roles.

The easiest way to make a group presentation is to outline the presentatand then divide the topics, giving one to each group member. Another mtber can be responsible for the opener and the close. During the question per.each member answers questions that relate to his or her topic.

In this kind of divided presentation, be sure to

• Plan transitions.• Enforce time limits strictly.• Coordinate your visuals so that the presentation seems a coherent whole• Practice the presentation as a group at least once; more is better.

The best group presentations are even more fully integrated: the gnwrites a very detailed outline, chooses points and examples, and creates\':

(@)alS together. Then, within each point, voices trade off. See the BAC\\site for links to advice on giving this sophisticated kind of teampsentation. This presentation is most effective because each voicespe

only a minute or two before a new voice comes in. However, it worksOni

when all group members know the subject well and when the group pIcarefully and practices extensively.

Whatever form of group presentation you use, be sure to introduce eamember of the team to the audience and to pay close attention to eachotherother members of the team seem uninterested in the speaker, the audiencegethe sense that that speaker isn't worth listening to.

• Informative presentations inform or teach the audience. Persuasivepresentations motivate the audience to act or to believe. Goodwillpresentations entertain and validate the audience. Most oral presentationshave more than one purpose.

• A written message makes it easier to present extensive or complexinformation and to minimize undesirable emotions. Oral messages makeeasier to use emotion, to focus the audience's attention, to answerquestions and resolve conflicts quickly, to modify a proposal that maynotbe acceptable in its original form, and to get immediate action or response

• In both oral and written messages, you should• Adapt the message to the specific audience.• Show the audience how they benefit from the idea, policy, service,or

product.

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'O\'ercomeany objections the audience may have.,Use you-attitude and positive emphasis., Use visuals to clarify or emphasize material., pecifyexactly what the audience should do.:noralpresentation needs to be simpler than a written message to themeaudience."amonologue presentation, the speaker plans the presentation ind\'anceand delivers it without deviation. In a guided discussion, the,eakerpresents the questions or issues that both speaker and audienceI'eagreed on in advance. Rather than functioning as an expert with all

:'1eanswers,the speaker serves as a facilitator to help the audience tap itswnknowledge. An interactive presentation is a conversation usinguestionsto determine the buyer's needs, probe objections, and gain:rovisionaland then final commitment to the purchase.\daptyour message to your audience's beliefs, experiences, and interests..sethebeginning and end of the presentation to interest the audience and:nphasizeyour key point..singvisuals makes a speaker seem more prepared, more interesting, andorepersuasive..seadirect pattern of organization. Put your strongest reason first...mityour talk to three main points. Early in your talk-perhaps'lliJ1ediatelyafter your opener-provide an overview of the main pointsmwillmake. Offer a clear signpost as you come to each new point. Aignpostis an explicit statement of the point you have reached.: calmyour nerves as you prepare to give an oral presentation,I Beprepared. Analyze your audience, organize your thoughts, prepare vi-sualaids, practice your opener and close, check out the arrangements.

,Useonly the amount of caffeine you normally use., Avoidalcoholic beverages.I Relabelyour nerves. Instead of saying, ''I'm scared," try saying, "Myadrenalineis up." Adrenaline sharpens our reflexes and helps us do ourbest.

'ustbeforeyour presentation,

I Consciouslycontract and then relax your muscles, starting with your feetandcalves and going up to your shoulders, arms, and hands.

I Takeseveral deep breaths from your diaphragm.

:Juringyour presentation,

I Pauseand look at the audience before you begin speaking.IConcentrateon communicating well.I Use body energy in strong gestures and movement.: Inveya sense of caring to your audience by making direct eye contactiththem and by using a conversational style."reatquestions as opportunities to give more detailed information thanlU had time to give in your presentation. Link your answers to the pointsmmadein your presentation.·'peatthe question before you answer it if the audience may not haveeardit or if you want more time to think. Rephrase hostile or biaseduestionsbefore you answer them.:hebestgroup presentations result when the group writes a very detailedutline,chooses points and examples, and creates visuals together. Then,ithineach point, voices trade off.

When a student took a job at Intel,her first assignment was to presenta strategic plan to CEOAndy Grovetwo weeks later.

Five minutes into her presenta·tion, he interrupted her: "Please flipto page 22. That's what I need toknow."

'Based on Evelyn Pierce, Thomas Had·jUk, and Richard Young, "Using VerbalProtocol Research to Determine WhatBusiness Audiences Want in Docu·ments," Association for Business Com·munication Conference, Chicago, IL, No-vember 6-9, 1996.