Ch 02-foundations of individual[1]

2-1

Chapter 2 Foundations of

Individual Behavior

Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 9/e

Stephen P. Robbins/Timothy A. Judge

2-2

Foundations of Individual Behavior

1. Ability .

2. Attitude.

3. Job Satisfaction

4. Learning

2-3

Ability

What is ability?

• Ability refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job

• Ability is a current assessment of what one can do. (abilities can be improved)

Which kind of ability is most important in modern society ？

• Intellectual ability or Physical ability ?

2-4

Ability

What is intellectual ability?

• Intellectual ability encompasses mental activities such as thinking, reasoning, and problem solving and is one of the best predictors of performance

Does intelligence make people happier or more satisfied with their jobs?

2-5

Ability

• No ！ The correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction is about zero

2-6

Ability

What is the reason for the correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction to be zero?

• The smart people have it better, but they also expect more.

Can the employee’s abilities predict the employee performance ?

2-7

Ability

• No ！ Employee performance depends on the interaction between ability and job requirement, and is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit

2-8

Ability

What will happen when the ability-job fit is poor?• The employee performance will be poor in spite

of the positive attitude or high level of motivation of the employee.

What will happen when an employee has the abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job?

• The employee’s performance may be adequate but it may be accompanied by organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction.

2-9

Ability

Group Study ：

“All organizations would benefit from hiring the smartest people they can get.”

Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your answer.

2-10

Attitudes

When I say “I like you” , what does it mean? My attitudes toward you are negative or positive? What are attitudes?

• Attitudes are evaluative statements – either favorable or unfavorable – concerning objects, people or events

2-11

1. Major Components of Attitudes

What are the three main components of attitudes?

• Cognition – an opinion or belief

• Affect – the emotional or feeling segment

• Behavior – the intention to behave in a certain way

2-12

Attitudes

Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.

Affective ComponentThe emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Cognitive componentThe opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

2-13

1. Major Components of Attitudes

• Consider the following three sentences, can you find which element of attitudes should each sentence belongs to?

1. I don’t like my supervisor.2. My supervisor is unfair because he gave a

promotion to a coworker who deserved it less.3. I will complained about my supervisor to

anyone who will listen and I am going to look for another job.

2-14

2. Consistency of Attitudes

Group Study

• If you are a tobacco executives and you have found that there are a lot of data linking cigarette smoking and negative health outcomes, then, how will you cope with the ongoing barrage of data? What is the reason for you to cope with the barrage in that way ？

2-15

2. Consistency of Attitudes

• People seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior

• When there is an inconsistency, the individual may alter either the attitudes or behavior, or develop a rationalization for the discrepancy

2-16

• Definition: Cognitive Dissonance refers to any inconsistency between two or more attitudes, or between behavior and attitudes

• Individuals seek to minimize dissonance, the greater the dissonance is, the greater the pressures to reduce it.

Cognitive dissonance

2-17

What will you do, when you have found that your husband or wife is not the suitable one for you anymore ？ When will you take an action to reduce the cognitive dissonance?

• The desire to reduce dissonance is determined by: The importance of the elements creating the

dissonance The degree of influence the individual believes he or

she has over the elements The rewards that may be involved in dissonance

Cognitive dissonance

2-18

The organizational implication of the theory of cognitive dissonance

It can help managers to predict the propensity of employees to engage in attitude or behavioral change.

• There are three strategies for an individual to reduce the dissonance ：

1.Alter the attitudes2.Alter the behavior3.Develop a rationalization for the discrepancy

2-19

Attitudes

Group Study ：

“Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes”

Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain Why.

2-20

• Recent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account.

Moderating Variables

• Importance of the attitude

• Specificity of the attitude

• Accessibility of the attitude

• Social pressures on the individual

• Direct experience with the attitude

Moderating Variables

• Importance of the attitude

• Specificity of the attitude

• Accessibility of the attitude

• Social pressures on the individual

• Direct experience with the attitude

A B

3. Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?

2-21

3. Does Behavior Always Follow from Attitudes?

Moderating Variables of the attitude-behavior relationship• Importance of the attitude. （ Muslim and pork ）• Specificity of the attitude or behavior（ six month to stay V.S. dislike the job ）• Accessibility of the attitude（ easy to remember ）• The existence of social

pressures （ a marriage with foreigners ）• A person’s direct experience

with the attitude （ an authoritarian supervisor ）

2-22

Self-Perception Theory

Attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has already occurred.

B A !And,

I had this same job with Marriott as a trainer for 10 years. Nobody force me to stay on this job. So I must like it !

2-23

Self-Perception Theory

• It means that behavior influences attitudes reversely.

• It argues that attitudes are used after the fact to make sense out of an action that has already occurred rather than as devices that precede and guide action. (Did you like your job before?)

• Tend to infer attitude from behavior when you have had few experiences regarding an issue

• Attitudes likely to guide behavior when your attitudes have been established for a while. It’s the established attitudes that affect behaviors.

2-24

Major Job Attitudes

• Job satisfaction• Job involvement• Organizational commitment

Affective commitment Continuance commitment Normative commitment

• Perceived organizational support• Employee engagement

2-25

Types of Attitudes

Job InvolvementIdentifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self-worth.

Organizational CommitmentIdentifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization (Affective, Normative, and Continuance Commitment).

Job Satisfaction

A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job.

Quiz1. What is the difference between Job involvement and Organizational commitment?

2-26

Types of Attitudes

High job involvement means identifying with one’s specific job, whereas high organizational commitment means identifying with one’s organization.

2-27

Types of Attitudes

•Affective commitment: An emotional attachment to the organization and a belief in its values. Ex ： A Petco employee may be affectively committed to the company because of its involvement with animals.•Continuance commitment: The perceived economic value of remaining with an organization compared to leaving it. EX ： An employee may be committed to an employer because she is paid well and feels it would hurt her family to quit.•Normative commitment: An obligation to remain with the organization for moral or ethical reasons. Ex ： An employee who is spearheading a new initiative may remain with an employer because h feels it would “leave the employer in a lurch.” If he left.

Quiz: Which one is the significant predictor of job performance and turnover ?

2-28

Types of Attitudes

Since you prefer it and trust its value ( have more affective commitment to it) then we can expect that you will engage in your job more easily.

Quiz:

Do you think that organizational commitment is still important as a work-related attitude than it once was ?

2-29

Types of Attitudes

To reflect today’s fluid workforce,

Which means that organization is incrementally not identical to one’s career development, so we might expect that something akin to occupational commitment to become a more relevant variable.

2-30

Types of New Attitudes

Quiz ：

When will people perceived their organization as supportive ?

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

Degree to which employees feel the organization cares about their well-being.

2-31


• Research shows that people perceived their organization as supportive when the following are true:

1. Rewards are deemed fair.2. Employees have a voice in decisions.3. Their supervisors are seen as supportive.

2-32


Employee Engagement

An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the organization.

Quiz ：

To assess employee engagement, how many questions might we ask employees ?

2-33


To assess employee engagement, one might ask employees about theses:

1. The availability of resources and opportunities to learn new skills

2. Whether they feel their work is important and meaningful.

3. Whether their interactions with their coworkers and supervisors were rewarding.

2-34

Quiz.

Compare the following 3 variables

1. Job Satisfaction

2. Job Involvement

3. Organizational commitment

which one can be treated as the necessary condition for the other 2 variables?

2-35

Job Satisfaction

Job SatisfactionA collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job.

• Think about the best job you have ever had. What made it so?

• Do the jobs that are compensated handsomely have higher average job-satisfaction levels than those are paid much less?

Job Satisfaction

• Once an individual reaches a level of comfortable living (in the United States, that occurs at about $40,000 a year, depending on the region and family size), the relationship virtually disappears.

What causes job satisfaction?

• Major job-satisfaction facets- work itself, pay, advancement opportunities, coworker, supervision

• Which facets always has the strongest correlation to high levels of overall Job Satisfaction?

2-38

What causes job satisfaction?

• Satisfaction levels will vary a lot depending on which facet of job satisfaction you are talking about.

• Work itself – most people prefer challenging and stimulating works

• Pay – not correlated after individual reaches a level of comfortable living, after about $40,000 a year, there is no relationship between amount of pay and job satisfaction

• A person’s personality-negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs-Attitude will determine your altitude.

Neutral Objects Satisfaction Questionnaire

2-39

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied

1. The city in which you live

2. The neighbors you have

3. The high school you attended

4. The climate where you live

5. Movies being produced today

6. The quality of food you buy

7. Today’s cars

8. Local newspapers

9. Your first name

10.The people you know

11. Telephone service

12. 8 ½”x11” paper

13. Restaurant food

14. Modern art

2-40

Effects of Satisfied and Dissatisfied Employees

How do you think about the relationship between these two variables?

Job satisfaction and job performancea.Happy workers are productive workersb.Productive workers are happy workers. Job satisfaction and absenteeism Job satisfaction and Turnover Job satisfaction and OCB （ A OR B ） Job satisfaction and customer satisfaction Job satisfaction and workplace deviance

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

• Satisfaction and Productivity – strong correlation Satisfied workers are more productive AND more

productive workers are more satisfied! Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more

satisfied workers.

• Satisfaction and Absenteeism – moderate to weak negative correlation Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.

• Satisfaction and Turnover – moderate negative correlation Satisfied employees are less likely to quit. Organizations take actions to retain high performers

and to weed out lower performers.

Job Satisfaction and OCB

• OCB – Organizational citizenship behavior Discretionary behavior that contribute to organizational

effectiveness but are not part of an employee’s formal job description

• Satisfaction and OCBs Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are

trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.

Ernesto is the known as the Donut Hut King---every day he brings Ernesto is the known as the Donut Hut King---every day he brings

donuts and coffee to the office for everyone. He says it helps donuts and coffee to the office for everyone. He says it helps

everyone think more clearly! Ernesto is demonstrating everyone think more clearly! Ernesto is demonstrating

1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction

2.2. Organizational citizenship Organizational citizenship

behaviorbehavior

3.3. ProductivityProductivity

4.4. Job involvementJob involvement

5.5. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes

Write down three things someone could do at work that would constitute an OCB. Compare

your list with a neighbor’s.

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

Which of the following is not generally true?a. Satisfied workers are productive workers.b. Productive workers are satisfied workers.c. Satisfaction is the major determinant of a worker’s OCB.d. Satisfaction comes down to fairness of outcomes, treatments or procedures.e. Enterprises with a greater percentage of satisfied workers are more effective than those with a smaller percentage of satisfied workers.

Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction

• Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction Satisfied workers provide better customer service

• Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because: They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive. They are less likely to turnover, which helps build long-

term customer relationships. They are experienced.

• Satisfaction and Workplace deviance – strong correlation Employees don’t like their work environment,

they will respond somehow.

Quiz:

If your employees take deviant behaviors including unionization attempts, substance abuse stealing at work and tardiness ,what will you do?

Go back to attack the source of the problem-Dissatisfaction.

In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of

1) Job Satisfaction1) Job Satisfaction

2) Happiness2) Happiness

3) Job Involvement3) Job Involvement

4) Mood at work4) Mood at work

5) Organizational Commitment5) Organizational Commitment

6) 1 and 2 6) 1 and 2

7) 1, 3, and 5 7) 1, 3, and 5

Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes

The Implication of Attitudes

2-49

• Attitudes give warnings of problems and influence behavior. Satisfied and committed employees have lower rates of turnover, absenteeism, and withdrawing behaviors.

• The most important action managers can take to raise employee satisfaction is to focus on the intrinsic parts of the job, such as making the work challenging and interesting.

• Managers should know that high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying work environment.

• If employees are required to engage in activities that appear inconsistent to them or are at odds with their attitudes, the pressure to reduce the resulting dissonance will be lessened when employees perceive that the dissonance is externally imposed and beyond their control or that the rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance.

2-50

Learning

Question ：

1. Since most of you have been in Taiwan for 1 more semester, what have you learned during this period of time?

2. According to your opinion how do you define the word “Learning” ? (Harry and Charley)

2-51

Learning

• Learning involves change

• The change must become ingrained

• Some form of experience is necessary for learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs

as a result of experience.

2-52

Theories of Learning

• Classical Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning

• Social Learning

Theories of Learning ：Classical Conditioning

Question:

Can you tell me what do these following cars mean in your country? Why?

•Mercedes-Benz•VOLVO•TOYOTA CAMRY•FORD•BMW


Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. When the stimuli are paired, the neutral one become a conditioned stimulus and hence takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus

Theories of Learning ：Classical Conditioning

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.Argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or avoid something they don’t want


Questions:When performance-appraisal time comes, you find that you are given no positive rewards for your overtime work. What will you do?

Operant Conditioning ：Behavior is a function of its consequences.


Key Concepts: A behavioral model is important

• Attention processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts: A behavioral model is important

• Attention processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation and direct experience.Individuals can learn by observing what happens to other people and just being told about something, as well as by direct experiences


Questions:

Briefly reviewing the definitions of operant conditioning and social learning theories can you tell me the similarities and differences between these two theories?


Similarity ：Social learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning-that is, it assumes that behavior is a function of consequences.Difference ：Social learning theory acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning.

Note ： People respond to how they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves.

2-61

Methods of Shaping Behavior

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

3. Punishment

4. Extinction

Types of Reinforcement

Question:

• Since your kid likes to go to McDonalds very much, when he is trying to utilize crying and making disturbance to achieve his objective, what will you do?


• Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behavior.

• Negative reinforcement Removing an unpleasant consequence when the

desired behavior occurs.

• Punishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an

undesirable behavior.

• Extinction Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its

cessation.


Question:

• Since there are four ways to shape the behaviors of your employees, can you tell me which one can strengthen the response and which one will weaken the response?


Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.


Question:

1. If you always use punishment to teach your kid what will happen to your kid in the future?

2. Does money always work in shaping the individual’s behavior? Why?

3. How do you feel when you are not tardy and your manager will always compliment you with the same words?

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent ReinforcementA desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

•Fixed or variable interval•Fixed or variable ratio

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

2-70

Schedules of Reinforcement

2-71

Please identify the right reinforcement schedules such as continuous, fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio for the following items

1. Slot machines2. Monthly paychecks3. A series of random visit to a company office by the

corporate office audit staff4. An employee in a dressmaking factory is paid $5.00 for

every zipper installed5. A salesman might get potential customers with 2 calls or

20 more calls.

Questions:

2-72

• There are two major types of reinforcement schedules. What are the appropriate situations for these two schedules to be applied respectively?

Questions:

2-73

• Continuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly emitted, unstable, or low-frequency responses (e.g. getting a reward for a perfect score on an exam)

• Intermittent reinforcers are appropriate for stable or high-frequency responses (e.g. getting a reward for a passing grade on an exam).

• Because ： Continuous reinforcement schedules can lead to early satiation and Intermittent reinforcement dose not.

Answer to this Questions

2-74

• If someone does not get perfect score frequently and you want this perfect score to happen once and once again which kind of schedule should you adopt? Continuous or Intermittent?

• If someone always can pass the exam easily and you want this guy to keep this behavior which kind of schedule should you adopt? Continuous or Intermittent?

• Satiation decides the difference.

Questions:

2-75

• There are two major types of reinforcement schedules, which one will always lead to super performance?

Questions:

2-76

• In general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than fixed schedules.

• Because ： The employee tends to be more alert because of the surprise factor.

Answer to this Questions:

2-77

Except the reinforcement which is empathized in reinforcement theory can you find another variable to affect the behaviors of an individual?

Questions:

2-78

• Is the only reason we tell someone we love them because we wish to obtain a reward or to mold their behavior?

• Thoughts and feelings immediately follow environment stimuli.

Answer to this Questions:

2-79

Implications for Managers

• Ability Effective selection process improves fit Promotion and transfer based on abilities Fine-tune job to better match abilities

• Attitudes – raise satisfaction by focusing on making work challenging and interesting

• Learning – Use reinforcement instead of punishment

2-80

Summary

1. Explained the relationship between ability and job performance.

2. Contrasted the three components of an attitude.3. Discussed similarities and differences between job

satisfaction and the other job attitudes.4. Discussed the causes and consequences of job

satisfaction.5. Understand how to shape the behavior of others.6. Distinguished among the four schedules of

reinforcement.

Ch 02-foundations of individual[1]

Business

Transcript of Ch 02-foundations of individual[1]