1

The Church of the Holy Trinity, a 13th century Byzantine church in Berat, Albania

Country Profile:

Republic of Albania

Republika e Shqipërisë

A Teacher’s Guide

Compiled by the Center for Eurasian, Russian and East European Studies

Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University

http://ceres.georgetown.edu

2

Albania in a Box: Table of Contents

Facts at a Glance

3-6

History of Albania

7-10

Timeline of Major Events in Albanian History

11

Albanian Culture

12-14

Folklore: The Tale of the Eagle

15

Additional Resources

16

Albanians celebrate 100 years of independence in 2012

3

Albania: Facts at a Glance

_______

Text and map taken directly from Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Albania

Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/al.html

Country Name: Republic of Albania

Capital: Tirana

Background: Albania declared its

independence from the Ottoman Empire

in 1912, but was conquered by Italy in

1939. Communist partisans took over the

country in 1944. Albania allied itself first

with the USSR (until 1960), and then

with China (to 1978). In the early 1990s,

Albania ended 46 years of xenophobic

Communist rule and established a

multiparty democracy. The transition has

proven challenging as successive

governments have tried to deal with high

unemployment, widespread corruption,

dilapidated infrastructure, powerful organized crime networks, and combative political

opponents. Albania has made progress in its democratic development since first holding

multiparty elections in 1991, but deficiencies remain. International observers judged elections to

be largely free and fair since the restoration of political stability following the collapse of pyramid

schemes in 1997; however, each of Albania’s post-Communist elections have been marred by

claims of electoral fraud. The 2009 general elections resulted in a coalition government, the first

such in the country’s history. Albania joined NATO in April 2009 and is a potential candidate

for EU accession. Although Albania’s economy continues to grow, the country is still one of the

poorest in Europe, hampered by a large informal economy and an inadequate energy and

transportation infrastructure.

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Flag of Albania: Red with a black two-headed eagle in the center; the design is claimed to be that of 15th-century hero George Castriota Skanderbeg, who led a successful uprising against the Turks that resulted in a short-lived independence for some Albanian regions (1443-78); an unsubstantiated explanation for the eagle symbol is the tradition that Albanians see themselves as descendants of the eagle; they refer to themselves as “Shkypetars,” which translates as “son of the eagle.”

Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece in

the south and Montenegro and Kosovo to the north

Area: Total: 28,748 sq km

Country comparison to the world: 145

Land: 27,398 sq km

Water: 1,350 sq km

Area - Comparative: Slightly smaller than Maryland

Terrain: Mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast

Elevation extremes: Lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m

Highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,764 m

Natural Resources: Petroleum, natural gas, coal, bauxite, chromite, copper, iron ore, nickel, salt,

timber, hydropower

Environment - Current Issues: Deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution from industrial and

domestic effluents

Population: 3,011,405 (July 2013 est.); Country comparison to the world: 137

Urbanization: Urban population: 52% of total population (2010)

Life Expectancy at Birth:

Total population: 77.77 years

Country comparison to the world: 60

Male: 75.16 years Female: 80.67 years

Ethnic Groups: Albanian 95%, Greek 3%,

Other 2% (1989 est.)

Religions: Muslim 70%, Albanian

Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10%

Education Expenditures: NA

Government Type:

Parliamentary democracy

Independence: 28 November 1912 (from

the Ottoman Empire)

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The Albanian Lek

Legal System: Civil law system except in the northern rural areas where customary law known as

the “Code of Leke” prevails

Executive Branch: Chief of state: President of the Republic Bujar Nishani; Head of

government: Prime Minister Sali Berisha

Legislative Branch: Unicameral Assembly or Kuvendi (140 deputies; 100 deputies elected

directly in single member electoral zones with an approximate number of voters; 40 deputies

elected from multi-name lists of parties or party coalitions according to their respective order;

elected for a four-year term)

Judicial Branch: Constitutional Court consists of 9 members appointed by the president with the

consent of the Assembly who serve 9-year terms (chairman elected by the People’s Asembly for a

four-year term); the High Court members appointed by the president with the consent of the

Assembly for a 9-year term; note – there are also courts of appeal and courts of first instance

National Anthem: Name: "Hymni I Flamurit” (Hymn to the Flag)

lyrics/music: Aleksandr Stavre Drenova/Ciprian Porumbescu

note: Adopted 1912

Economy - Overview: Albania, a formerly closed, centrally-planned state, is making

the difficult transition to a more modern open-market economy. Macroeconomic

growth averaged around 6% between

2004-08, but declined to about 3% in

2009-11, and 0.5% in 2012. Inflation

is low and stable. The government has

taken measures to curb violent crime,

and recently adopted a fiscal reform

package aimed at reducing the large

gray economy and attracting foreign

investment. Remittances, a significant

catalyst for economic growth declined from 12-15% of GDP before the 2008

financial crisis to 8% of GDP in 2010, mostly from Albanians residing in Greece

and Italy. The agricultural sector, which accounts for almost half of employment

but only about one-fifth of GDP, is limited primarily to small family operations and

subsistence farming because of lack of modern equipment, unclear property rights,

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and the prevalence of small, inefficient plots of land. Energy shortages because of a

reliance on hydropower – 98% of the electrical power produced in Albania – and

antiquated inadequate infrastructure contribute to Albania’s poor business

environment and lack of success in attracting new foreign investment needed to

expand the country’s export base. FDI is among the lowest in the region, but the

completion of a new thermal power plant near Vlore has helped diversify generation

capacity, and plans to upgrade transmission lines between Albania and Montenegro

and Kosovo would help relieve the energy shortages. Also, with help from EU

funds, the government is taking steps to improve the poor national road and rail

network, a long-standing barrier to sustained economic growth. The country will

continue to face challenges from increasing public debt, having slightly exceeded its

former statutory limit of 60% of GDP in 2012. Strong trade, remittance, and

banking sector ties with Greece and Italy make Albania vulnerable to spillover

effects of the global financial crisis.

GDP (Purchasing Power Parity): $25.86 billion; Country comparison to the world: 121

GDP - Real Growth Rate: 0.5% (2012 est.); Country comparison to the world: 174

GDP - Per Capita (PPP): $8,000; Country comparison to the world: 131

GDP - Composition by Sector: Agriculture: 20.4%, Industry: 19.1%, Services: 60.5%

Labor Force: 1.071 million (2011 est.); Country comparison to the world: 141

Agriculture - Products: Wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy

products, sheep

Industries: Perfumes and cosmetic products, food and tobacco products; textiles and clothing;

lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower

Current Account Balance: $-1.45 billion (2012 est.), Country comparison to the world: 125

Exports - Commodities: Textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil

Exports - Partners: Italy 45.3%, China 7.8%, Turkey 6.3%, Greece 5.2%, Spain 5.1% (2011)

Imports - Partners: Italy 33%, Greece 12.2%, China 5.9%, Turkey 5.6%, Germany 4.3% (2011)

Debt - External: $5.281 billion (2012 est.) Country comparison to the world: 111

Exchange Rates: Albanian Lek (ALL) per US dollar – 103.3 (2012 est.)

Military Service Age and Obligation: 19 years of age (2004)

Military expenditures: 1.49% of GDP (2005) - Country comparison to the world: 104

7

Butrint: Butrint is an ancient city

located in present day Albania. The city

was founded by the ancient Greeks and

later run by the Romans.

Dating technology puts the earliest

inhabitants of Butrint somewhere

between the 10th and 8th centuries BCE.

A well-known resident of Butrint is

Saint Therinus, who was born in Butrint

and killed during an anti-Christian tide

during the 3rd century CE.

Butrint was included in UNESCO’s

World Heritage Site list in 1992. It is

currently listed as a site “in danger”

because of looting, poor management

and lack of conservation.

History of Albania

_______

Text is a summary of information from Britannica

Antiquity: The territory of modern day Albania was settled

in antiquity by the Illyrians. The Illyrians are also the ancient

ancestors of the Albanian people, providing the basis for the

Albanian language. Around the 7th century BCE the Greeks

began to colonize the Illyrian coast. The Greeks were

replaced by the Romans, who introduced Christianity to the

region in the middle of the 1st century CE. Around the same

time a bishopric was established, as well as other episcopal

seats (Butrint included). When the Roman Empire divided,

the territory of Albania became part of the Byzantine

Empire in the east. Under Byzantine rule, the territory was

attacked by Visigoths, Huns and Ostrogoths. Shortly after

these invasions, the 6th to 8th centuries, Slavs began to

migrate to the region and settled in present day Croatia,

Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia. Between the 8th and 10th

centuries, the name Illyrian became less and less common,

with the term Albanoi taking its place. When the Church

split in 1054 the northern part of Albania reverted to the

Roman jurisdiction while the southern regions remained

under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. During the Medieval period, Albanian urban culture

prospered as foreign trade flourished in the region. Despite this, the Albanian language was not

commonly taught or used; instead, Greek and Latin, with close ties to the Church, were

commonplace.

Ottoman Rule: By the 14th century Byzantine rule in Albania had effectively come to an end.

Ottoman Turks began invading Albania in 1388 and gained control of the country in 1430. In

1443 the Albanians were able to push out the Ottomans, but by 1506 the Ottomans had retaken

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King Zog I of the Albanians

Born into a beylik family of landowners,

King Zog grew up in better conditions

than most of his Albanian compatriots.

He volunteered in the First World War

for Austria-Hungary and spent time in

Italy.

Upon becoming king, in an attempt to

unify the country, Zog took his oath

before Parliament on both the Bible and

the Qur’an. Though highly despotic as a

ruler, King Zog did open Albania’s

borders for European Jews seeking to flee

persecution in the buildup to World War

II.

King Zog is noted as the only modern

leader to return fire during an

assassination attempt.

control. The Ottomans began attempts to introduce Islam to the Albanians near the end of the

16th century. By the end of the next century, nearly two-thirds of Albanians would be Muslims.

Ottoman rule was both backwards are oppressive, causing

the Albanians to miss out on the marvels of the

Renaissance sweeping through Europe.

Independent Albania: The Ottoman’s hold on Albania

began to slip by the mid-19th century. In 1878 the Albanian

League was founded with the purpose of connecting all

Albanian territories, a goal it would not meet, and

promoting a unified Albanian language. In 1908 it

succeeded in adopting a new Albanian text. The Albanians

took up arms against their Ottoman rulers in 1910 and in

1912 the Vlore proclamation was made, declaring Albania’s

independence. With Austro-Hungarian and Italian support,

Albania was able to obtain recognition of its independence

from the Ottomans in 1912. German prince, Wilhelm zu

Wied, was appointed as ruler of Albania and arrived in the

country in 1914. He quickly departed due to the outset of

World War I. During World War I, Albania was

conquered by many of the war’s larger powers and was

nearly partitioned at the war’s conclusion. US President

Woodrow Wilson prevented the country’s partition and the

British successfully lobbied for Albania to be included in the

League of Nations, formal international recognition of

Albania’s status as an independent and sovereign state.

King Zog and Bishop Noli: The 1920’s saw an increasingly

polarized Albania being torn in two directions. On one hand, Bishop Noli and a quickly growing

movement of liberal intellectuals were attempting to orient Albania towards the West and

increase modernization efforts. On the other hand, conservative landowners and tribal leaders

with ties to the Ottoman Empire sought to resist Westernization. This faction was led by

Ahmed Bey Zogu. After Noli established a western-styled democracy in 1924, Zogu fled to

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Enver Hoxha

A grammar school teacher, Hoxha joined

the communist resistance movement in

Albania shortly after losing his position

due to his refusal to join the Albanian

Fascist Party. Hoxha was one of the

original members of the Central

Committee of the Communist Party of

Albania, serving as the Muslim

representative.

Hoxha declared himself a Marxist-

Leninist and was a fierce critic of

Marxist-Leninist revisionism, especially

after his abandonment of Maoist

doctrine. Hoxha had strong admiration

for Joseph Stalin, but cared little for his

fellow communist leaders.

Hoxha died in 1985, having suffered

through his later years of diabetes and

cerebral ischemia, a condition related to

insufficient blood flow to the brain.

Yugoslavia. With Yugoslav assistance, Zogu overthrew the unrecognized Noli government. Zogu

served as prime minister from 1925-28 and as King Zog I from 1928-39. King Zog’s reign was

not a successful one; he failed to institute land reform,

oversaw massive food shortages resulting in excessive

imports of food staples, and prompted numerous revolts.

Italy invaded in 1939 and King Zog fled to Greece.

World War II and the Rise of Hoxha: The Italians used

Albania as an outpost for their military excursions into

Greece during World War II. The Italians were later

replaced by the Germans, who reunited ethnic Albanian

populations in Cameria and Kosovo with the Albanian

state. This was short lived; when the Germans

withdrew from the region, Cameria returned to Greece

and Kosovo to Yugoslavia. During the occupation of

Albania, the Albanian Communist Party organized

fierce resistance to the Nazis. The communists beat

back the Nazis and two rival groups for control of the

country, and in 1944 assumed political control. By

virtue of his position in the Communist Party, Enver

Hoxha became the leader of Albania. The People’s

Republic of Albania was founded in 1946, with the

name changed to the People’s Socialist Republic of

Albania in 1976.

The People’s Social Republic of Albania: Under Hoxha,

Albanian communists sought to modernize the country

and undertook massive nationalization of enterprises

and resources. Agriculture was collectivized, being

completed only in 1967. Hoxha and the communists

quickly destroyed the power of the rural landowners and others previously loyal to King Zog I

through collectivization and nationalization efforts. Albania’s ties to other communist states were

rather erratic. Initially, 1944-48, the country closely aligned itself with neighboring Yugoslavia.

10

Sali Berisha

Sali Berisha, a cardiologist by profession,

has been a defining face in post-

Communist Albanian politics. He served

as the country’s president from 1992-97, a

leader in the opposition from 1997-2005

and as prime minister from 2005-13.

Berisha is the leader of the Democratic

Party of Albania. He is currently the

longest democratically elected leader of

Albania.

In 2009, Berisha made waves when he

announced his support for LGBT rights.

He oversaw the enacting of anti-

discrimination legislation that protected

the rights of the LGBT community.

From 1948-61, Albania chose to drop the Yugoslav model in favor of the Stalinist Soviet model.

When Hoxha tired of the Soviet Union, he turned eastward and from 1961-78 adopted a

Maoist, Chinese influenced model for Albania. In the end Hoxha grew disillusioned with all his

communist brethren and isolated Albania as the lone

bastion of Stalinism entering the 80s.

Collapse of Communist Rule: After Hoxha’s death in

1985 leadership of the country was given to Hoxha’s

handpicked successor, Ramiz Alia. Alia attempted to

gradually reform the Albanian government and

economy, all while trying to preserve communist rule.

The government grew increasingly unstable under Alia

and in March 1992 a coalition of anti-communist

parties won a decisive electoral victory. Alia resigned as

president and communist rule came to an end. Albania

quickly began to orient itself towards the West,

returning to the long held belief that Albania is a part of

Europe. The country joined OSCE during this time,

ending a long period of international isolation. In 1997

the country was rocked by the collapse of numerous

pyramid schemes, which resulted in many Albanians

losing their life savings. UN peacekeepers were called in

to quell the population. The Albanian Socialist Party

won in a landslide the following year. In 1999 the

country experienced an influx of nearly half a million

Albanian refugees fleeing the conflict in Kosovo. Albania has made progress in improving the

economic and political condition of the country. In 2009 it joined NATO, and the country has

hopes of someday joining the European Union. Albania in recent years has had to deal with the

debt crisis of its primary trading partners, Italy and Greece. Elections, while garnering improved

grades from international observers, continue to see sporadic violence and episodes of unrest.

The elections in 2013 saw the Socialists win a sizeable majority, displacing Sali Berisha, a

prominent Albanian politician since the overthrow of communism.

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Timeline of Major Events in Albanian History

_______

Text taken directly from BBC News. Timeline: Albania.

Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17681099

1939 – Shortly before the start of World War II, Italy invades. King Zog flees to Greece.

1941 – Enver Hoxha becomes head of new Albanian Communist Party.

1943 – German forces invade and occupy Albania following Italian surrender.

1944 – Germans withdraw after Communist resistance. Enver Hoxha installed as new leader.

1946 – Purges of non-communists from government positions.

1948 – Albania breaks ties with Yugoslavia; Soviet Union begins economic aid to Albania.

1950 – Britain and US back landings by right-wing guerillas, who fail to topple communists.

1955 – Albania becomes a founding member of the Warsaw Pact.

1961 – Albania allies itself with China, after Soviet Union breaks diplomatic relations over ideological rift.

1967 – Violent clampdown on religious activity. Albania declared the world’s first atheist state.

1968 – Albania withdraws from Warsaw Pact over Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia.

1978 – China ends economic and military aid to Albania after relations become strained by China’s

reconciliation with the US.

1985 – Hoxha dies, replaced by Ramiz Alia.

1990 – Independent political parties formed. Albanians granted right to travel abroad. Thousands try to

flee through Western embassies. Thousands more seize ships at port and sial illegally to Italy.

1991 – General amnesty for political prisoners.

1992 – Democractic Party wins elections. Party leader Sali Berisha becomes first elected president.

1993 – Ex-communist leaders, including Fatos Nano and Ramiz Alia convicted and jailed for corruption.

1997 – Leka, son of late King Zog, returns from exile in bid to take throne. Referendum on restoration of

monarchy fails. He is accused of trying to stir up an armed insurrection and flees back into exile.

1997 – Fraudulent pyramid investment schemes collapse, costing thousands of Albanians their savings

and triggering anti-government protests. Up to a million weapons are looted from army stores as angry

mobs take to the streets. Government resigns and Socialist-led coalition sweeps to power. Fatos Nano,

now released from prison, returns as prime minister. Convictions of communist-era leaders overturned.

1999 – Nato air strikes against Yugoslav military targets. In Kosovo thousands flee attacks by Serb forces.

Mass refugee exodus into Albania.

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Tarator

Chilled yogurt and cucumber drink

Baklava

Albanian Culture

Albanian Cuisine

Albanian cuisine offers a truly unique blend of

Mediterranean flavors. Representing a rich historical

past, the food of modern Albania has developed over

millennia reflects a variety of influences. East meets

west in many discernible ways throughout Albanian

culture, but nowhere is it more evident that in the

cuisine.

The mild climate is favorable for many agricultural

pursuits. Among Albania’s most popular are: peppers,

eggplants, tomatoes, cucumbers, and an assortment of

legumes. The wide variety of fruits and vegetables grown here serves to further enhance this

varied fare.

These vegetables are combined with meats in a number of delectable ways to form the basis for

many Albanian delights. Most often, these creations are baked in earthenware or sautéed, and

take one of the following forms: stew, casserole, stuffed vegetables, or meatballs. Other types of

dishes blend many vegetables (with or without

meat), and can be traced to Asian origins.

As in many other Mediterranean countries,

olives are a staple in Albania. Although they are

most frequently enjoyed on their own, olives

combine with many foods and are an essential

ingredient in many signature dishes. Types vary

by region. Olives from the Berat region are

prized for their unique flavor and low fat

content. Olives form Vlora, Borsh, Himara, and

Tirana are higher in fat content and are more often used for olive oil production.

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Lahuta

Defi

Full-Text: http://akt.gov.al/tinymce/jscripts/tiny_mce/plugins/filemanager/files/broshura_ture_harte/guzhina.pdf

Albanian Music

Text adopted from Wikipedia: Music of Albania

Albania’s political, military and cultural domination by outside elements have contributed to the

country’s modern music scene. Albanian music is a fusion of the music of Southeastern Europe,

especially that of the Ottoman Empire, which ruled Albania for

more than 500 years. However, the Albanian people maintained

vast cultural identity away from their overlords, with many

living in rural and remote mountains.

Lahuta: The lahuta is a single stringed instrument played by

various groups in the Balkans. It is always accompanied by

singing, often songs relating to folktales or historical epics.

Defi: The defi is an oversized tambourine. It is common in

Azeri, Indian, Iranian and Turkish music. The defi also features

prominently in the music of cultures conquered or ruled by these powers. The defi is most often

used for accompaniment.

Surlja: The surlja is a wind instrument that is most

often accompanied by a davul (drum). Its origin is in

Anatolia, but has spread through Eastern Europe

thanks to Ottoman control of much of Southeastern

Europe. While there are many varieties of surjlas

throughout different cultures, all instruments of the

family are noted for their wooden construction and

their short, double reeds.

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Literature:

Text from Encyclopedia Britannica

The Ottoman Empire, which ruled Albania from the 15th to the

early 20th century, prohibited publications in Albanian, an edict

that became a serious obstacle to the development of literature

in that language. Books in Albanian were rare until the late 19th

century.

The earliest works of Albanian literature were written by

Catholic clerics, whose ties with the Vatican enabled them to

circumvent Turkish restrictions by publishing their works

outside Albania, mostly in Rome.

Literary activity gathered momentum in the wake of the

formation of the Albanian League of Prizren. Albanians in exile

formed patriotic and literary societies to promote the

propagation of literature and culture as instruments for gaining

independence. The national motif became the hallmark of the

literature of this period, known as Rilindja, and writers of the

time came to be known collectively as Rilindas.

Albanian literature took a historic step forward in 1908 when

Albanian linguists, scholars, and writers convened the Congress

of Monastir, which adopted the modern Albanian alphabet

based on Latin letters.

At the turn of the 20th century, a note of realism, combined

with cynicism, appeared in Albanian literature as writers sought

to identify and combat the ills of Albanian society, such as

poverty, illiteracy, blood feuds, and bureaucracy.

Albanian literature has traditionally been written in the two

main Albanian dialects: Gheg in the north and Tosk in the

Naim Frashëri

(1846-1900)

Frashëri is commonly considered to

be Albania’s national poet. He was

born into an impoverished bey

family and later served as an

Ottoman official.

Because of his position, Frashëri

had to smuggle his writings back to

Albania and avoid publishing under

his full name. He is best known for

his poetry, which he wrote in

numerous languages throughout his

career. His early works include

poems written in Persian, Turkish,

Greek and Albanian.

Frashëri’s most famous work is

Bagëti e Bujqësi, a poem written in

Albanian with a strong nationalistic

theme.

His portrait is currently on the 200

Lek banknote.

15

south. In 1972, however, a Congress of Orthography held in Tirana formulated rules for a

unified literary language based on the two dialects. Since then, most authors have employed the

new literary idiom.

Folklore: The Tale of the Eagle

_______

Text and Translation taken from: http://frosina.org/category/culture-history/folktales/

A youth was hunting in the mountains. An eagle flying above him set down on top of a crag.

The eagle was especially large and had in its beak a snake. After a while, the eagle flew away

from the crag where it had its nest. The youth then climbed to the top of the crag where he saw,

in the nest, an eaglet playing with the dead snake.

But the snake wasn’t really dead! Suddenly it stirred, revealed its fangs and was ready to pierce

the eaglet with its deadly venom. Quickly, the youth took out his bow and arrow and killed the

snake. Then he took the eaglet and started for his home. Suddenly the youth heard above him

the loud whirring sound of the large eagle’s wings.

“Why do you kidnap my child?” cried out the eagle.

“The child is mine because I saved it from the snake which you didn’t kill,” answered the youth.

“Give me back my child and I will give you as a reward the sharpness of my eyes and the

powerful strength of my wings. You will become invincible and you will be called by my name!”

Thus the youth handed over the eaglet. After the eaglet grew, it would always fly above the head

of the youth, now a full-grown man, who, with his bow and arrow, killed many wild beasts of the

forest, and who, with his sword, slew many enemies of the land. During all of these feats, the

eagle faithfully watched over and guided him.

Amazed by the valiant hunter’s deeds, the people of the land elected him king and called him

“Albanian” which is to say “Son of the Eagle,” and his kingdom became known as “Albania” or

“Land of the Eagles.”

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Select Bibliography of Sources on Albania

Bozgo, Shkelqim, Xheni Sinakoli and Emin Spahia. “Customary Law, Conflict, and

Development in the Mountains of Albania,” Mountain Research and Development. Vol.

22, No. 4 (2002), 341-343.

Carletto, Calogero, Benjamin Davis, Marco Stampini and Alberto Zezza. “A Country on

the Move: International Migration in Post-Communist Albania,” International

Migration Review. Vol. 40, No. 4 (2006), 767-785.

Dalakoglou, Dimitris. “Migrating-Remitting-‘Building’-Dwelling: House-Making as

‘Proxy’ Presence in Postsocialist Albania,” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological

Institute. Vol. 16, No. 4 (2010), 761-777.

Elsie, Robert. Historical Dictionary of Albania. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2010.

Fischer, Bernd Jurgen. Albania at War, 1939-45. West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue

University Press, 1999.

Galaty, Michael. Light and Shadow: Isolation and Interaction in the Shala Valley of

Northern Albania. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, 2013.

Guy, Nicola. The Birth of Albania: Ethnic Nationalism, the Great Powers of World

War I and the Emergence of Albanian Independence. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012.

Jarvis, Chris. “The Rise and Fall of the Pyramid Schemes in Albania,” IMF Staff Papers.

Vol. 47, No. 1 (2000), 1-29.

Kaltsounis, Theodore. The Democratization of Albania: Democracy from Within. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Pearson, Owen. Albania and King Zog: Independence, Republic and Monarchy, 1908-

39. New York: Centre for Albanian Studies in association with IB Tauris Publishers,

2004.

Tomes, Jason. King Zog of Albania: Europe’s Self-Made Muslim King. New York: New

York University Press, 2004.