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Transcript of Cells, Tissues, Glands and Membranes HO
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cells, tissues,
glands andmembranes
Allen O. Cudiamat, RN
UNP- College of Nursing
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CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
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CHEMISTRY
MatterSolid
Liquidgas Elements
Atoms
NeutronsProtonselectrons
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CHEMISTRY
Isotopes -Isotopes of the same type of atomdiffer in the number ofneutrons and therefore in weight.
Low level radiation
- Tracers (iodine 131, PET)
High level radiation
-Uranium- gamma rays for sterilizing surgical
instruments)
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Chemical Bonds
Molecules Compounds
1. Ionic Bonds electrons are transferred
from one atom to another2. Covalent Bonds electrons are shared
3. Disulfide bonds bond of 2 sulfur within
one protein molecule to maintain a 3Dstructure
4. Hydrogen Bonds results from unequal
distribution of charges
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Ionic bond
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Covalent Bond
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Hydrogen Bond
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Synthesis ReactionA + B AB
2. Decomposition Reaction
AB A + B3. Exchange Reaction
AB + CD AC + BD
Reversible ReactionAB A + B AB
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INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Few have carbon atoms but none have C-C or C-H bond; they tend to be simple
WATER OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
ELECTROLYTES
ACIDS AND BASES
SALTS
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WATER
PROPERTIES OF WATER:
polarity water is the universal solvent
High heat capacity
Chemical reactivity
High heat of vaporization
Cohesive
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OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
OXYGEN
- completes decomposition reactions needed
for energy release
CARBON DIOXIDE
- maintains blood pH balance
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ELECTROLYTES
Large group of inorganic
compounds that dissociate in a
solution to form ions
Cation
Anion
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ACIDS AND BASES
ACIDS
- release hydrogen ion when in a solution
- proton donor- sour
BASES
- release hydroxide ion when in a solution
- proton acceptors
- bitter
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Acids and Bases
pH Srensen (1909)
- measure of hydrogen or hydroxyl ions in asolution
Buffers
- maintains constancy of pH
Bicarbonate Buffer strong acid buffer (HCl)
Carbonic Acid buffer strong base buffer (NaOH)
Plasma proteins, hGb, SO4
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SALT
Chemical interaction of acid and
base
Acid + Base water + salt
HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl
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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Are decomposable; have carbon atoms
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEINS LIPIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS COMBINED FORMS
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CARBOHYDRATES
- primary source of chemical energy ( ATP)
1. Monosaccharides simple; not
sweet2. Disaccharides double; 2 simple
joined by synthesis reaction
(Dehydration Reaction)3. Polysaccharides multiple; manysimple sugars
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PROTEINS
- Most abundant organic compound
- Amino acids building blocks of proteins
1. fibrous/ structural CHON- important in binding structures together and
providing strength in certain body tissues
- collagen ( bones), Keratin ( hair and nails)
2. Globular/ Functional CHON
- - Mobile and spherical
- Antibodies, hormones, enzymes
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PROTEINS
4 LEVELS OF CHON ORGANIZATION
1. PRIMARY - chains
2. SECONDARY coiled into sheets
3. TERTIARY globular in shape
4. QUARTERNARY more than 1
polypeptide chain
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PROTEINS
ENZYMES
- catalysts that speed up chemical
reaction
- functions by the active site theory
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LIPIDS
- WATER INSOLUBE MOLECULES
- Fats
1. Triglycerides fat deposits
a. Saturatedb. unsaturated
2. Phospholipids cell membrane
3. Steroids (Cholesterol, bile salts, Vit D, Sex
hormones, Adrenocortical Hormones)4. Fat Soluble Vitamins (AEK), prostaglandins,
lipoproteins
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
1.DNA
2.RNA
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CELLS
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CELL STRUCTURES
PLASMA MEMBRANE
- separates the cell from its environment
- compose of phosholipid bilayer
CYTOPLASM- contains organelles
- thick gel-like substance where organelles aresuspended in the cytosol
NUCLEUS- control center
- protects and holds the DNA
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Plasma membrane
MICROVILLI
- fingerlike projections thatincrease the surface area for
absorption
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Plasma membrane
MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
1. Tight junctions
- impermeable junctions that bind cells togetherinto leak proof sheets
2. Desmosomes
- anchoring junctions that prevent cells from beingpulled apart
3. Gap junctions
- allows communication- connexons are hollow cylinders composed ofproteins that allow passage of ions or nutients
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ORGANELLES
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
1. ROUGH ER
-with ribosomes- CHON synthesis and intracellular
transport
2. SMOOTH ER- synthesize lipids and CHO
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ORGANELLES
RIBOSOMES
- protein synthesis enzyme
production
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ORGANELLES
RIBOSOMES
Structure
-formed in the nucleus
-has two subunits
-eukaryotic cells-60S and 40S
-prokaryotic cells
-50S and 30S
-made up of RNA and protein-~65% RNA
-~35% protein
-about 20 nanometers in
diameter
-not bound by a membrane
-smaller than most organelles
-bound to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum or thenuclear envelope
-sometimes found floating incytoplasm
-can also be in the mitochondria
-has transfer RNA-two binding sites
-one exit site
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Function
-produces/assembles proteins-proteins produced are often transported out of
the cell
-translation: process of the assembly of proteins
-translates mRNA (instructions for building theprotein)
-binds amino acids
-releases and transports proteins into thecytoplasm (prokaryotes) or the Golgi Apparatus(eukaryotes)
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ORGANELLES
GOLGI APPARATUS
- processes CHON from ER
- CHON leaves the cisterna in avesicle to outside the cell(secretion)
- Releases products through golgivesicles (lysosomes, secretoryvesicle)
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ORGANELLES
LYSOSOMES
- sacs from Golgi Apparatus
- contains digestive enzymes
- destroyed in oxygen deprivation
and excessive Vit. A
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ORGANELLES
PEROXISOMES
- sacs containing detoxifying
substances (oxidase enzymes)that enter the cell
- disarm free radicals and convert
them to hydrogen peroxide(H2O2)
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ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRIAStructure
-inner and outer membranes-phospholipid bilayers with proteins
-outer membrane
-encloses organelle
-inner membrane
-very impermeable
-folds to form cristae
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5 distinct compartments-outer membrane
-intermembrane space (between the two
membranes)-inner membrane
-cristae
-matrix (inside inner membrane)-also contains DNA particles, Ribosomes,
Granules, and ATP particles
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Function-source of power for eukaryotic cells
-"cellular power plant"
-generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
-energy conversion-on inner membrane (in cristae)
-other processes
-cell cycle
-cell growth-programmed cell death
-cell communication
-cell respiration processes
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ORGANELLES
CYTOSKELETON
- network of protein structures extendingthroughout the cytoplasm
1. microfilaments (actin and myosin) cellmotility
2. intermediate filaments help form
desmosomes3. Microtubules dtermine overall shapeof the cell and distribution of organelles
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ORGANELLES
CENTRIOLES
- FORMS THE MITOTIC SPINDLES
DURING CELL DIVISION
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ORGANELLES
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
- Projections of the cell
- The flagella (sperm) are longerthen the cilia (respiratory tract)
- Flagella help in the movement ofthe cell; cilia help in propellingsubstances across a cells surface
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CELL PHYSIOLOGY
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Membrane Transport
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Osmotic Pressure
-solute concentration of a solution; determineswhether cell gain or lose water
1. Hypertonic solution
- More solutes and less water than the cells- Cell shrink (crenation)
2. Hypotonic solution-fewer solutes and more water than the cells
- Cell swells and ruputures (lysis)
3. Isotonic Solution-equal ratio of solute to solvent; no apparent change
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MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
PASSIVETRANSPORT
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. filtration
ACTIVETRANSPORT
1. Solute pumps/pumping
2. Bulk transport
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Passive Transport1. DIFFUSION
- Movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to anarea of lower concentration
Simple diffusion
- movement of solutes through a selectively permeable
membrane (cell Wall) Facilitated diffusion
-movement of solutes requiring protein carrier
2. OSMOSIS
-diffusion of liquid(water) through a selectively permeablemembrane
3. FILTRATION
- movement of substance from an area of higher hydrostatic
pressure to a lower hydrostatic pressure through a membrane
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DIFFUSION
OSMOSIS
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FACILITATED DIFFUSION
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Active Transport
- Uses ATP energy1. SOLUTE PUMP/PUMPING
- Molecules are moved across a membrane
against an electrical or a concentrationgradient.
2. BULK TRANSPORT
a. Exocytosis- Moves substances out of the cell
b. Endocytosis
- Moves substances into the cell
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Cell Division
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Cell Reproduction
Interphase cell grows and carries usual
metabolic activities
- prepares for DNA replication(AT,CG)
MITOSIS
- Produces two identical diploid daughter cells
MEIOSIS
-produces 4 haploid daughter cells
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Protein Synthesis
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Protein Synthesis
RNA
- tRNA gathers amino acids; contains
anticodon- rRNA helps form ribosomes,arranges CHON
- mRNA transfers the gene(blue printfrom the DNA); contains codon
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Protein Synthesis
TRANSCRIPTION
- transfer of information from DNAs
base sequence(triplet) intocomplementary base
sequence(codon) of the mRNA
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Protein Synthesis
TRANSLATION- occurs in cytoplasm;
1. mRNA attaches to ribosome,
2. tRNA carrying amino acids binds its anticodon to the codon
of the mRNA3. Another tRNA binds with the next sequence of codon
4. The amino acids they carry are bound together by enzymes
5. The first tRNA is released into the cytoplasm
6. Another tRNA binds with the next codon sequence, and soon until the whoe sequence is used up.
7. When the last codon(stop codon) is reached, the protein
chain is released from the ribosome.
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Mitosis
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Mitosis
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Meiosis
Results in 4 haploid daughter cells
Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Occurs in the production f sex cells/gametes
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TISSUES
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TISSUES
- Group of cells similar in structure and function
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
- lining, covering and glandular tissue of the body; for protection,absorption, filtration, secretion
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- most widespread tissue; connects body parts, supports, transportsmolecules and defends the body
MUSCLE TISSUES
- specialized for contraction; movement
NERVOUS TISSUES- irritability and conductivity; rapid integration and regulation ofbody activities
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Epithelial tissues
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EPITHELIAL TISSUES
CHARACTERISTICS
Form sheets
The membranes have one free edge/surface
The lower surface rests on structureless
material secreted by cells (basement
membrane)
Avascular
Regenerate easily
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Epithelial Tissues
FUNCTIONS
Protection
- membranes of epithelium
Sensory function
- skin, nose, eyes, ears
Secretion
- glandular epithelium
Absorption
- GIT, GUT, Respiratory tract
Excretion
- kidney tubules
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Epithelial Tissues
CLASIFICATIONS
MEMBRANOUS EPITHELIUM
Based on cell shape
Based on cell layers
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
Exocrine glands
Endocrine glands
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Membranous Epithelium
BASED ON CELL SHAPE
Squamous flattened
Cuboidal cube-shaped
Columnar columns
BASED ON CELL LAYERS
SIMPLE single layer
STRATIFIED layered one on another
TRANSITIONAL different types of cell per layer
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED one layer of cells tthat looks likemany layers
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Membranous Epithelium
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS - alveoli
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL glands and ducts
SIMPLE COLUMNAR mucous membranes of
stomach, intestines, uterus, respiratory tract
PSUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR lining the air
passages of the respiratory sytem
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Membranous epithelium
STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS (KERATINIZED)
- skin
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS (NON-KERATINIZED)
- lining the vagina, esophagus, and mouth
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
- protective function; sweat gland ducts, pharynx,epiglottis
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR- only the most superficial layer is columnar; segments
of urethra, mucous layer near the anus
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Glandular Epithelium
- Specialized for secretory activity
EXOCRINEGLANDS
- discharge secretions into ducts
ENDOCRINEGLANDS
- discharge secretions directly into the
blood stream
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Glandular Epithelium
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OFEXOCRINE
APOCRINE
- collects the products near the apex and releaseby pinching of the distended end (mammary gland)
HOLOCRINE
- products are collected inside the cell and the cellruptures to release the products( sebaceous gland)
MEROCRINE
- discharges through the cell/plasma membrane (salivary gland)
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Connective tissues
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Connective Tissues
MATRIX
- holds the tissues together
GROUND SUBSTANCE
- composed of water , polysaccharides and
adhesion proteins
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Connective Tissues
FIBERS IN THE MATRIX
COLLAGENOUS
- white; form bundles; great tensile strength
RETICULAR- networks; delicate; support capillaries and
nerve fibers
ELASTIC
- have elastin; returns to normal length afterbeing stretched(external ear Cartillage)
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Connective Tissue
CLASSIFICATIONS:
FIBROUS
LOOSE/ORDINARY- stretchable (areolar)
ADIPOSE fat cells
RETICULAR 3D web (spleen)
DENSE bundles of fibers (tendons) BONE osteocytes and osteoblasts in the lacunae
CARTILLAGE - chondrocytes HYALINE shiny (decreased collagen)
FIBROCARTILLAGE strongest; shock-proof; cushion
ELASTIC voice box and the larynx BLOOD
WBC, RBC, platelets
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Muscle tissues
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Muscle Tissues
- specialized for contraction
TYPES
SKELETAL/STRIATED VOLUNTARY
- obvious striations; gross body movements
CARDIAC/STRIATED INCOLUNTARY
- myocardium; uninucleate branching cells that fittightly at the junction called intercalated disks
SMOOTH/VISCERAL/NON-STRIATED INVOLUNTARY
- spindle-shaped elongated uninucleates; found inhollow organs(intestines, stomach, blood vessels,bladder)
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Nervous tissues
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Nervous Tissue
NEURONS
- conduct electrochemical substances
AXON
- conducts impulses away from the cellbody(soma)
DENDRITES
-conducts/receives impulses towards the cell body
NEUROGLIA
- connecting and supporting cells
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ME
MB
RANE
S
b
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membranes
- thin tissue layers that cover surfaces, line
cavities, and divide spaces or organs
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
CUTANEOUS
SEROUS
MUCOUS
CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
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EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
CUTANEOUS (SKIN)
- covers the body surface exposed to the environment
SEROUS lines cavities and covers the organs inside it Parietal layer/membrane
- covers the wall of the cavity Visceral layer/membrane
- covers the surface of the viscera(organ)
MUCOUS
- lines body surfaces opening directly to the exterior
- respiratory, urinary, reproductive tract- produces a film of mucous
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S b
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Serous membranes
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TISSUE REPAIR
TISSUE REPAIR
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TISSUE REPAIR
INFLAMMATION
- generalized(non-specific) body response that attempts to
prevent further injury.
- complex way in which cells and tissues react to injury IMMUNE RESPONSE
- specific response and mounts a vigorous attack against
recognized invaders
REGENERATION
- replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
FIBROSIS
- repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue
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INFLAMMATION
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CELSUS proposed the first four cardinal signs of
inflammation:
1. Rubor
2. Calor
3. Dolor
4. Tumor
5. Functio laesa
Release of mediators (histamine, serotonin, bradykinin
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CELLDAMAGE
Activation of pain receptors and attraction of phagocytes(chemotaxis)
Direct effects
Blood vessel dilation
Increased capillary permeability
Emigration and margination
Cardinal signs
Redness, heat, swelling, pain
Diapedesis and phagocytosis
Woundhealing
Granulation tissue formation
Fibrosis/regeneration
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BLOOD VESSEL DILATION
HEAT/CALOR
INCREASEDMETABOLIC RATE
REDNESS/RUBOR
INCREASEDNUTRIENTS IN
THE AREA
INCREASED CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY
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FUNCTIO LAESA
LIMITED OR IMPAIRED FUNCTION
EDEMA
PAIN/DOLOR SWELLING/TUMOR
INCREASED CAPILLARY PERMEABILITY
EDEMA
CLOTTING FACTORS ENTER THE
AREA
release of chemical mediators attracting WBCs
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CHEMOTAXIS
release of chemical mediators attracting WBCs
EMIGRATION/
MARGINATION
WBCs line on the blood vessel wall near the area of injury
DIAPEDESIS
WBCs move from the blood vessel into the site of injury
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Neutrophils engulf dead cells
Monocyte macrophages cleans the area from dead cells,pathogens and neutrophils
Exudate is a combination of dead cells, WBCs, plasma, andh i
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exudate
other proteins
Exudates may form abscess
Contains fibrin
mediators
Continuous mediator activation
Leads to immune response
Clotformation
Fibrin accumulates to form a matrix/web
Scab clot exposed to air
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Granulation tissueformation
Delicate pink tissue composedlargely of new capillaries thatgrow into the damaged area
Contains phagocytes thatdispose the clot and connectivetissue(fibroblasts) thatsynthesize collagen fibers topermanently bridge thegap(scar)
Surface epitheliumregeneration or Fibrosis
Regeneration of the surface ofthe injured organ
Formation of keloid or fibrous
connective tissue to bridge thegap.