Cells and Heredity - GST BOCES · Cells and Heredity “The Building ... ribosomes attached. 8...
Transcript of Cells and Heredity - GST BOCES · Cells and Heredity “The Building ... ribosomes attached. 8...
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Cells and HeredityCells and Heredity
““The Building Blocks of The Building Blocks of
LifeLife””
What is What is ““Life?Life?””
Characteristics that all living Characteristics that all living
things possessthings possess…………..
6 Characteristics of Life6 Characteristics of Life
�� Compare the Compare the
following following
photos. What photos. What
characteristics characteristics
do they do they
exhibit?exhibit?
1. All organisms must be 1. All organisms must be
composed of one or more Cellscomposed of one or more Cells
�� Different types of Different types of
cells have different cells have different
"jobs" within the "jobs" within the
organism organism
�� They can be as simple They can be as simple
as one cell as one cell
(paramecium) or as (paramecium) or as
complex as an complex as an
elephantelephant
2. Living things have levels of 2. Living things have levels of
organizationorganization
�� Living things range Living things range
from the very simple from the very simple
to the very complexto the very complex
�� Cells, Tissues, Cells, Tissues,
Organs, Organ Organs, Organ
Systems, OrganismSystems, Organism
3. All living things use Energy3. All living things use Energy
�� All organisms use energy to surviveAll organisms use energy to survive
�� Plants (autotrophs): sunlight to make Plants (autotrophs): sunlight to make
energyenergy
�� Animals (heterotrophs): eat other plants Animals (heterotrophs): eat other plants
and animals to get energyand animals to get energy
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4. Homeostasis4. Homeostasis
�� The maintenance of stable internal The maintenance of stable internal
conditionsconditions
�� All organisms have stable internal All organisms have stable internal
conditions which must be maintained in conditions which must be maintained in
order to remain alive. order to remain alive.
�� Example: 98.6 degree temperatureExample: 98.6 degree temperature
�� Maintained by sweating or shiveringMaintained by sweating or shivering
5. Growth5. Growth
�� All organisms grow All organisms grow
and changeand change
�� Cells divide to form Cells divide to form
new identical cellsnew identical cells
�� Ex: an infant Ex: an infant
growing into an growing into an
adultadult
6. Reproduction6. Reproduction
�� All organisms reproduce All organisms reproduce in order to continue the in order to continue the species' existence. species' existence.
�� New offspring are New offspring are produced from the produced from the genetic material passed genetic material passed from the parentfrom the parent
�� Reproduction may be Reproduction may be either sexual or asexualeither sexual or asexual
Sexual ReproductionSexual Reproduction
�� Involves the uniting of egg and spermInvolves the uniting of egg and sperm
�� Allows for genetic variation Allows for genetic variation
�� Egg:Egg: Female sex cell; half the genetic material Female sex cell; half the genetic material necessary for an offspring necessary for an offspring
�� Sperm:Sperm: Male sex cell; half the genetic material Male sex cell; half the genetic material necessary for and offspring necessary for and offspring
�� Ex: Ex: Humans: 46 chromosomes are necessary for Humans: 46 chromosomes are necessary for the creation of a humanthe creation of a human�� Egg: 23 chromosomesEgg: 23 chromosomes
�� Sperm: 23 chromosomesSperm: 23 chromosomes
Asexual ReproductionAsexual Reproduction
�� A process where an organism creates a A process where an organism creates a geneticallygenetically--similar or identical copy of similar or identical copy of itself without a contribution of genetic itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual material from another individual
�� Common in lower level (singleCommon in lower level (single--cell) cell) organismsorganisms
�� Individual cells grow and split to form two Individual cells grow and split to form two identical daughter cellsidentical daughter cells
�� DOES NOT allow for genetic variationDOES NOT allow for genetic variation
What is means to be What is means to be ““ALIVEALIVE””
�� All LIVING THINGS require:All LIVING THINGS require:
��Energy:Energy:
��Nutrients to carry on life functionsNutrients to carry on life functions
��Space:Space:
��A place for living things to thrive and A place for living things to thrive and
make a livingmake a living
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Classification of LifeClassification of Life
�� Classification of life is based on similarities Classification of life is based on similarities
and difference between organismsand difference between organisms
�� Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial or Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial or
22--name classification system in the late name classification system in the late
17001700’’ss
�� Genus species systemGenus species system
�� Example: Homo sapiens Example: Homo sapiens -- humanshumans
Classification of LifeClassification of Life
�� Kingdom Kingdom –– Phylum Phylum –– Class Class –– Order Order –– Family Family ––Genus Genus –– SpeciesSpecies
�� Kingdom is the most general classification of Kingdom is the most general classification of organism they are similar most similar in organism they are similar most similar in appearance and behavior appearance and behavior -- there are 5:there are 5:�� 1. Monera 1. Monera –– bacteriabacteria
�� 2. Protista 2. Protista -- amoebaamoeba�� 3. Fungi 3. Fungi -- mushroommushroom
�� 4. Plantae 4. Plantae -- grassgrass
�� 5. Animalia 5. Animalia -- monkeymonkey�� Monera is the least complex organisms Monera is the least complex organisms
�� Animalia is the most complex organismsAnimalia is the most complex organisms
Classification of LifeClassification of Life
�� Species is the most specific classification Species is the most specific classification
of organismof organism
�� Organisms of the same species can Organisms of the same species can
reproduce and produce fertile offspringreproduce and produce fertile offspring
�� Ex: Poodle and a cocker spanielEx: Poodle and a cocker spaniel�� CockaCocka--poopoo is the resultis the result
Classification of HumansClassification of Humans
�� Kingdom Kingdom –– AnimaliaAnimalia
�� Phylum Phylum –– Chordata vertebrataChordata vertebrata
�� Class Class –– MammaliaMammalia
�� Order Order –– PrimatesPrimates
�� Family Family –– HominidaeHominidae
�� Genus Genus –– HomoHomo
�� Species Species -- SapiensSapiens
The CellThe Cell
�� All Living Things Are All Living Things Are
Made Up of CellsMade Up of Cells
CellsCells
�� Often called, Often called, ““BASIC BASIC
UNIT OF LIFEUNIT OF LIFE””
�� The basic units of The basic units of
structure and function structure and function
in all living thingsin all living things
�� Cells make up living Cells make up living
things just as bricks things just as bricks
make up buildingsmake up buildings
Animal Cells
Plant Cells
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CellsCells--A Brief HistoryA Brief History
�� Prior to the 1500Prior to the 1500’’s, no s, no
one knew cells one knew cells
existedexisted
�� The Breakthrough:The Breakthrough:
�� The development of The development of
the Microscope around the Microscope around 1590 made it possible 1590 made it possible
for people to discover for people to discover
and study cellsand study cells
The compound MicroscopeThe compound Microscope
�� A more complex and A more complex and
powerful microscopepowerful microscope
�� A scope with more A scope with more
than one lensthan one lens
�� Allowed for viewing of Allowed for viewing of
even smaller cellseven smaller cells
Robert Hooke Robert Hooke
�� English Scientist/InventorEnglish Scientist/Inventor
�� In 1663, was one of the In 1663, was one of the first to observe cells with first to observe cells with a homea home--build microscopebuild microscope
�� Studies Cork from the Studies Cork from the cork oak treecork oak tree
�� Saw what looked like tiny Saw what looked like tiny rectangular rooms (prison rectangular rooms (prison cells)cells)
�� He named them He named them ““CellsCells””
�� Was amazed at Was amazed at ““How How ManyMany”” cells were therecells were there
Anton van LeeuwenhoekAnton van Leeuwenhoek
(LAY (LAY vunvun hook)hook)
�� A Dutch businessman and A Dutch businessman and
amateur scientistamateur scientist
�� Build his own microscopeBuild his own microscope
�� Looked at pond water and Looked at pond water and
was the first to describe was the first to describe
what he called what he called ““animalculesanimalcules””
or or ““tiny animalstiny animals””
�� These tiny These tiny ““animalculesanimalcules””
were singlewere single--celled celled
organisms called BACTERIAorganisms called BACTERIA
MatthaisMatthais SchleidenSchleiden (SHLY dun)(SHLY dun)
�� German Scientist in German Scientist in
1838 who concluded 1838 who concluded
that all plants were that all plants were
made of cellsmade of cells
�� Based his conclusion Based his conclusion
on his own research on his own research
and that of othersand that of others
TheodorTheodor SchwannSchwann
�� German science who German science who
concluded in 1839 that all concluded in 1839 that all animals were made up of animals were made up of
cells.cells.
�� Knowing of Knowing of SchleidenSchleiden’’sswork, he therefore work, he therefore
concluded that, concluded that, ““ALL ALL
LIVING THINGS ARE LIVING THINGS ARE MADE UP OF CELLSMADE UP OF CELLS””
�� Problem: still didnProblem: still didn’’t know t know where cells came fromwhere cells came from
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Rudolf Rudolf VirchowVirchow (FUR (FUR kohkoh))
�� A German doctor who A German doctor who
in 1855 proposed that in 1855 proposed that
new cells are formed new cells are formed
only from existing only from existing
cells.cells.
�� ““All cells come from All cells come from
Cells,Cells,”” wrote wrote VirchowVirchow
The Cell TheoryThe Cell Theory
�� The work of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, The work of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, SchleidenSchleiden, ,
SchwannSchwann, , VirchowVirchow, others lead to the cell theory, others lead to the cell theory
�� A widely accepted explanation of the relationship A widely accepted explanation of the relationship
between cells and living thingsbetween cells and living things
�� Cell theory states:Cell theory states:
�� All living things are composed of cellsAll living things are composed of cells
�� Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living thingsliving things
�� All cells are produced from other cellsAll cells are produced from other cells
The compound light microscopeThe compound light microscope
�� A powerful tool for scientistsA powerful tool for scientists
�� Uses lenses to magnify (enlarge) very tiny Uses lenses to magnify (enlarge) very tiny objectsobjects--cellscells
�� The lenses magnify an object by bending The lenses magnify an object by bending the light that passes through themthe light that passes through them
�� The magnification is found by:The magnification is found by:�� Eyepiece X objective = magnificationEyepiece X objective = magnification
�� Ex: 10x eyepiece X 20x objective = Ex: 10x eyepiece X 20x objective =
200x magnification200x magnification
ResolutionResolution
�� The ability of a The ability of a
microscope to clearly microscope to clearly
distinguish the distinguish the
individual parts of an individual parts of an
objectobject
�� The higher the The higher the
resolution, the better resolution, the better
the image qualitythe image quality
Low Resolution
High Resolution
Electron MicroscopesElectron Microscopes
�� Scopes that use a Scopes that use a
beam of electrons beam of electrons
instead of light, to instead of light, to
examine specimensexamine specimens
�� Since electrons are so Since electrons are so
small, they produce small, they produce
extremely high quality extremely high quality
or high resolution or high resolution
imagesimages
Coral sperm-20,000x
Looking inside cellsLooking inside cells
�� OrganellesOrganelles
�� Tiny structures inside cells which carry on Tiny structures inside cells which carry on
necessary life functionsnecessary life functions
�� These structures are similar in both plant These structures are similar in both plant
and animal cellsand animal cells
�� HOWEVER, plant cells have a cell well and HOWEVER, plant cells have a cell well and chloroplasts, animal cells DO NOTchloroplasts, animal cells DO NOT
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The Plant CellThe Plant Cell Cell WallCell Wall
�� Thick, nonliving, Thick, nonliving,
material which material which
surrounds the cells of surrounds the cells of
plantsplants
�� Made us cellulose, a Made us cellulose, a
tough flexible materialtough flexible material
�� Provides structure, Provides structure,
and protection for the and protection for the
plantplant
ChloroplastsChloroplasts
�� Large green Large green
structures in the structures in the
cytoplasm of plant cytoplasm of plant
cellscells
�� Capture energy from Capture energy from
the sun and use it to the sun and use it to
produce food for the produce food for the
cell (plant)cell (plant)
�� Chloroplasts are what Chloroplasts are what
give plants their give plants their
green colorgreen color
The Animal CellThe Animal Cell
Cell MembraneCell Membrane
�� Located inside the cell Located inside the cell
well in plant cellswell in plant cells
�� Forms the outside of Forms the outside of
animal cellsanimal cells
�� Separates the cell Separates the cell
from its environmentfrom its environment
�� Has tiny openings or Has tiny openings or
pores which control pores which control
what goes into and what goes into and
out of the cellout of the cell
NucleusNucleus
�� Large oval structure, Large oval structure,
or the or the ““BrainBrain”” of the of the
cellcell
�� The The ““control centercontrol center””
of the cellof the cell
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Nuclear MembraneNuclear Membrane
�� Separates the nucleus Separates the nucleus
from the surrounding from the surrounding
cytoplasmcytoplasm
�� Protects the nucleus Protects the nucleus
�� Allows materials to Allows materials to
pass into and out of pass into and out of
the nucleus through the nucleus through
small poressmall pores
ChromatinChromatin
�� The strands of The strands of
genetic material genetic material
which float within the which float within the
nucleusnucleus
�� Directs the function of Directs the function of
the cellthe cell
�� Chromatin is the Chromatin is the
necessary genetic necessary genetic
material which allows material which allows
the nucleus to the nucleus to ““knowknow””
how to direct the cellhow to direct the cell
NucleolusNucleolus
�� Small round object Small round object
within the nucleuswithin the nucleus
�� Responsible for the Responsible for the
production of production of
ribosomes ribosomes –– organelle organelle
where proteins are where proteins are
mademade
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm -- not really an organellenot really an organelle
�� The region between the cell membrane The region between the cell membrane and the nucleusand the nucleus
�� Clear, thick, gelClear, thick, gel--like fluidlike fluid
�� Constantly movingConstantly moving
�� Houses more organelles which are Houses more organelles which are responsible for:responsible for:�� Energy production, building and transport of Energy production, building and transport of
needed materials, storing, and recycling of needed materials, storing, and recycling of wasteswastes
MitochondriaMitochondria
�� Rod shaped Rod shaped
structuresstructures
�� The The ““PowerhousePowerhouse”” of of
the cellthe cell
�� Produces energy the Produces energy the
cell needs to carry out cell needs to carry out
its normal functionsits normal functions
�� Muscle cells have Muscle cells have
large numbers of large numbers of
mitochondriamitochondria
Endoplasmic ReticulumEndoplasmic Reticulum
�� A maze of A maze of
passageways which passageways which
carry proteins and carry proteins and
other materials from other materials from
one part of the cell to one part of the cell to
anotheranother
�� Rough endoplasmic Rough endoplasmic
reticulum has the reticulum has the
ribosomes attachedribosomes attached
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RibosomesRibosomes
�� Small grainSmall grain--like like
bodies attached to bodies attached to
the endoplasmic the endoplasmic
reticulumreticulum
�� Protein factoriesProtein factories
�� They release some of They release some of
those proteins into those proteins into
the endoplasmic the endoplasmic
reticulum where they reticulum where they
are transported to the are transported to the
Golgi bodiesGolgi bodies
Golgi Bodies (apparatus)Golgi Bodies (apparatus)
�� Flattened collection of Flattened collection of
sacs and tubessacs and tubes
�� The cellThe cell’’s s ““mail roommail room””
�� They receive proteins They receive proteins
and other newly and other newly
formed materials, formed materials,
package them, and package them, and
distribute them to distribute them to
other part of the cellother part of the cell
VacuoleVacuole�� Large, round, waterLarge, round, water--
filled sacs floating in filled sacs floating in
the cytoplasmthe cytoplasm
�� Storage areas of the Storage areas of the
cellcell
�� One large one in plant One large one in plant
cells; small or totally cells; small or totally
absent in animal cellsabsent in animal cells
�� Store food and waste Store food and waste
producesproduces
�� Help cells hold their Help cells hold their
shape when fullshape when full
LysosomesLysosomes
�� Small, round, Small, round, structures which structures which contain chemicals that contain chemicals that break down large break down large food particles into food particles into smaller onessmaller ones
�� Recycle old cell partsRecycle old cell parts--cleanup crewcleanup crew
�� More common in More common in animal cells than in animal cells than in plantsplants
Bacterial CellsBacterial Cells
�� Smaller than plant of Smaller than plant of
animal cellsanimal cells
�� Have both a cell wall Have both a cell wall
(like plants) and a cell (like plants) and a cell
membranemembrane
�� DO NOT HAVE A DO NOT HAVE A NUCLEUS!!!NUCLEUS!!!
�� Genetic material is a Genetic material is a
thick, tangled string thick, tangled string
found in the found in the
cytoplasmcytoplasm
�� Contain Contain ribosomesribosomesbut but NO OTHER NO OTHER
ORGANELLESORGANELLES
Specialized CellsSpecialized Cells
�� Found in many forms Found in many forms
in plants and animalsin plants and animals
�� Structure of each type Structure of each type
of cell serves a of cell serves a
specific purposespecific purpose
�� Examples:Examples:�� Skin, smooth muscle, Skin, smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, nerve cardiac muscle, nerve
cellscells
�� Root cells, liver cells, Root cells, liver cells,
stem, leaves, etc. stem, leaves, etc.
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Chemical Chemical
Compounds in CellsCompounds in Cells
Materials Necessary to Materials Necessary to
sustain lifesustain life
Elements and CompoundsElements and Compounds
�� Element:Element:�� Any substance that cannot be broken down Any substance that cannot be broken down
into simpler substancesinto simpler substances
�� Atom:Atom:�� The smallest unit of an elementThe smallest unit of an element
�� Compound:Compound:�� 2 or more elements chemically combined2 or more elements chemically combined
�� Molecule:Molecule:�� The smallest unit of a compoundThe smallest unit of a compound
Organic Vs. Inorganic CompoundsOrganic Vs. Inorganic Compounds
�� ORGANIC ORGANIC
COMPOUNDSCOMPOUNDS
�� Contain CarbonContain Carbon
�� CarbohydratesCarbohydrates
�� LipidsLipids
�� ProteinsProteins
�� Nucleic acidsNucleic acids
�� All of these are All of these are
necessary to necessary to
sustain lifesustain life
�� INORGANIC INORGANIC
COMPOUNDSCOMPOUNDS
�� Most do not contain Most do not contain
carboncarbon
�� Carbon Dioxide is the Carbon Dioxide is the
one exceptionone exception
�� WaterWater
�� Sodium chlorideSodium chloride
CarbohydratesCarbohydrates
�� EnergyEnergy--rich organic rich organic
compoundcompound
�� Made of carbon, Made of carbon,
hydrogen, and hydrogen, and
oxygenoxygen
�� Examples: sugar, Examples: sugar,
starchstarch
ProteinProtein
�� Large organic moleculesLarge organic molecules
�� Made of carbon, hydrogen, Made of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen oxygen, nitrogen
(sometimes sulfur)(sometimes sulfur)
�� Made up of smaller Made up of smaller
molecules called : molecules called : amino amino
acidsacids
�� Ex: Meat, eggs, fish, nuts, Ex: Meat, eggs, fish, nuts,
beansbeans
�� ““construction moleculesconstruction molecules””
�� Make up cell membranes, Make up cell membranes, organelles, hair, etc.organelles, hair, etc.
EnzymesEnzymes
�� Type of protein that speeds up a chemical Type of protein that speeds up a chemical
reaction in living thingsreaction in living things
�� Ex: Ex: amylaseamylase in saliva begins to change starch in saliva begins to change starch
into sugar in the mouthinto sugar in the mouth
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LipidsLipids�� Fats, oils, and waxesFats, oils, and waxes
�� High energy organic High energy organic
compounds stored in compounds stored in
cells as fatcells as fat
�� Even more energy Even more energy
than carbohydratesthan carbohydrates
�� Example: CholesterolExample: Cholesterol
Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids
�� Very large organic molecules in the Very large organic molecules in the
nucleusnucleus
�� Made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, Made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and phosphorusnitrogen, and phosphorus
�� Contain the necessary information cells Contain the necessary information cells
need to carry out all the functions of the need to carry out all the functions of the
cellcell
DNADNA
�� DDeoxyriboeoxyribonnucleic ucleic aacidcid
�� Genetic materialGenetic material
�� Carries information Carries information that is passed from that is passed from parent to offspringparent to offspring
�� Directs all functions of Directs all functions of the cellthe cell
�� Found in the Found in the chromatinchromatin in the in the nucleusnucleus
�� The The ““Double HelixDouble Helix””
RNARNA
�� RRiboibonnucleic ucleic aacidcid
�� Directs the Directs the
production of production of
proteinsproteins
�� Found in the Found in the
cytoplasm as well cytoplasm as well
as in the nucleus of as in the nucleus of
cellscells
Water and Living ThingsWater and Living Things
�� Water is required for Water is required for most chemical reactions most chemical reactions within cellswithin cells
�� ““NO WATER Means NO NO WATER Means NO LIFELIFE””
�� Helps cells keep their Helps cells keep their shapeshape
�� Helps maintain cell Helps maintain cell temperaturetemperature
�� Helps with material Helps with material transport into and out of transport into and out of cellscells
Cells and The Cells and The
EnvironmentEnvironment
Diffusion, Osmosis, & Diffusion, Osmosis, &
TransportTransport
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HomeostasisHomeostasis
�� The maintenance of constant internal The maintenance of constant internal
conditions conditions
�� This process is essential for organisms to This process is essential for organisms to
survivesurvive
�� Accomplished through:Accomplished through:�� Cell membraneCell membrane
�� DiffusionDiffusion
�� OsmosisOsmosis
�� TransportTransport
Cell MembraneCell Membrane--““The GatekeeperThe Gatekeeper””
�� Selective Permeability:Selective Permeability:
�� Property of the cell wellProperty of the cell well
�� Allowing only some Allowing only some
substances to pass through substances to pass through
itit
�� Ex: water, oxygen, carbon Ex: water, oxygen, carbon
dioxidedioxide
�� Like the gatekeeper of a Like the gatekeeper of a
castlecastle--only lets the only lets the
““friendlysfriendlys”” in or outin or out
Diffusion Diffusion
�� Process where Process where
molecules tend to molecules tend to
move from areas of move from areas of
high concentration to high concentration to
low concentrationlow concentration
�� WHY?, you may askWHY?, you may ask……..
�� Molecules are always Molecules are always moving and bumpingmoving and bumping
�� As they bump they move As they bump they move
further and further apart; further and further apart; spreading out evenlyspreading out evenly
Diffusion in CellsDiffusion in Cells
�� Organisms/cells require nutrients from Organisms/cells require nutrients from their environmenttheir environment
�� Ex: Oxygen from pond waterEx: Oxygen from pond water
�� The O is in The O is in high concentration in the waterhigh concentration in the waterand in and in low concentration with a singlelow concentration with a single--cell cell organismorganism
�� DiffusionDiffusion moves the O from the pond moves the O from the pond water across the cell membrane into the water across the cell membrane into the cellcell
Osmosis:Osmosis: diffusion of water diffusion of water
moleculesmolecules�� OSMOSIS:OSMOSIS:
�� Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membranepermeable membrane
�� Ex: Plant CellsEx: Plant Cells--leavesleaves�� A normal leaf is stiff and smoothA normal leaf is stiff and smooth
�� As the soil dries up, the plant will wilt; thus osmosis As the soil dries up, the plant will wilt; thus osmosis removes water from the cells since the concentration removes water from the cells since the concentration is greater inside the cellsis greater inside the cells
�� As the soil becomes moist, the plant recovers; As the soil becomes moist, the plant recovers; osmosis returns water to the cells since the osmosis returns water to the cells since the concentration is greater outside the cellsconcentration is greater outside the cells
Passive TransportPassive Transport
�� The movement of The movement of
materials through cell materials through cell
membranes membranes
WITHOUT the use of WITHOUT the use of
energyenergy
�� Ex: osmosis, diffusionEx: osmosis, diffusion
�� Material move from Material move from High concentration to High concentration to Low concentrationLow concentration
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Active TransportActive Transport�� The use of energy to The use of energy to
move materials move materials
through a cell through a cell
membranemembrane
�� This forces materials This forces materials
against a against a
concentration concentration
gradientgradient; ; from low from low concentration to high concentration to high concentrationconcentration
�� This is the opposite of This is the opposite of diffusion!diffusion!
Cell Processes and Cell Processes and
EnergyEnergy
PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis
PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis
�� The process where a cell The process where a cell
captures sunlight and uses captures sunlight and uses
it to make its own foodit to make its own food
�� ““photophoto””--means means ““lightlight””
�� ““synthesissynthesis””--means means ““to put to put
togethertogether””
�� Converting Carbon dioxide Converting Carbon dioxide and water into sugars and water into sugars (glucose) and oxygen(glucose) and oxygen
PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis--2 step process2 step process
�� Step #1: Step #1:
�� Capture sunlightCapture sunlight�� Chloroplasts (organelles in Chloroplasts (organelles in
the cell) the cell)
�� ChlorophyllChlorophyll: green : green
pigments in the pigments in the
chloroplasts absorb chloroplasts absorb
sunlightsunlight
�� Act as Act as ““solar cellssolar cells””; just ; just
like a solar powered like a solar powered
calculator calculator
PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis--2 step process2 step process
�� Step #2:Step #2:
�� Using sunlight to make foodUsing sunlight to make food��Roots absorb water that moves up to the leavesRoots absorb water that moves up to the leaves
�� Leaves absorb carbon dioxide through openings Leaves absorb carbon dioxide through openings
called called STOMATASTOMATA
��Water and carbon dioxide move into the Water and carbon dioxide move into the chloroplasts in the leaveschloroplasts in the leaves
�� Sunlight (chlorophyll), water, and carbon dioxide Sunlight (chlorophyll), water, and carbon dioxide go through complex chemical reactionsgo through complex chemical reactions
��Products:Products: oxygen gas, sugars (including glucose)oxygen gas, sugars (including glucose)
��Glucose (CGlucose (C66HH1212OO66) and other sugars now power ) and other sugars now power
other cell processesother cell processes
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis
EquationEquation
6 CO6 CO22 + 6 H+ 6 H22O CO C66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22
6 Carbon Dioxides
6 waters 1 glucose (sugar)
6 oxygens
In the presence
of light energy
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Autotroph Vs. HeterotrophAutotroph Vs. Heterotroph
�� AutotrophAutotroph�� An organism that An organism that can can
makemake its own foodits own food
�� Uses sunlight, water, Uses sunlight, water,
carbon dioxide, or carbon dioxide, or
other materials to other materials to create its foodcreate its food
�� HeterotrophHeterotroph�� An organism An organism which which
cannot makecannot make its own its own foodfood
�� Must consume (EAT) Must consume (EAT)
autotrophs or other autotrophs or other heterotrophsheterotrophs
Photosynthesis and LifePhotosynthesis and Life
�� Nearly all living things obtain energy Nearly all living things obtain energy
either directly or indirectly from the suneither directly or indirectly from the sun
�� This means; photosynthesis is the This means; photosynthesis is the
process which powers much of the life on process which powers much of the life on
EarthEarth
Cell Processes and Cell Processes and
EnergyEnergy
Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration
Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration
�� Breaking down of Breaking down of
simple molecules simple molecules
(glucose) to (glucose) to
release energyrelease energy
�� Happens in the Happens in the
cells at the cells at the
mitochondriamitochondria
Respiration Respiration
EquationEquation
CC66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22 6 CO6 CO22 + 6 H+ 6 H22O + EnergyO + EnergyGlucose 6 Oxygen 6 Carbon
Dioxide6 Water Molecules
2 Stages of Respiration2 Stages of Respiration
�� Stage #1:Stage #1:
�� Takes place in cytoplasm of the cellTakes place in cytoplasm of the cell
�� Glucose molecules are broken down into Glucose molecules are broken down into
smaller moleculessmaller molecules
�� NO Oxygen is used hereNO Oxygen is used here
�� Little energy from glucose is releasedLittle energy from glucose is released
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2 Stages of Respiration2 Stages of Respiration
�� Stage #2:Stage #2:�� Takes place in mitochondriaTakes place in mitochondria
�� Small molecules from stage #1 are broken down into Small molecules from stage #1 are broken down into even smaller moleculeseven smaller molecules
�� Oxygen is requiredOxygen is required
�� These reactions release a great deal of energyThese reactions release a great deal of energy
�� This is why mitochondria are the This is why mitochondria are the ““powerhousespowerhouses”” of of the cellthe cell
�� Small sugar molecules and oxygen go into the Small sugar molecules and oxygen go into the mitochondriamitochondria
�� Energy, Carbon dioxide, and water come outEnergy, Carbon dioxide, and water come out
Photosynthesis Vs. RespirationPhotosynthesis Vs. Respiration
�� Photosynthesis:Photosynthesis:
�� Uses carbon dioxide Uses carbon dioxide
and waterand water
�� Produces oxygen and Produces oxygen and
sugarssugars
�� Respiration:Respiration:
�� Uses glucose (sugars) Uses glucose (sugars)
and oxygenand oxygen
�� Produces carbon Produces carbon
dioxide and waterdioxide and water
Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and
Respiration can be Respiration can be Respiration can be Respiration can be
considered considered considered considered
opposites of one opposites of one opposites of one opposites of one
another!another!another!another!
Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and
RespirationRespiration
Yes!!!!You need to DRAW and LABEL this
diagram!!
FermentationFermentation
�� The production of The production of
energy without the energy without the
use of oxygenuse of oxygen
�� Not as efficient at Not as efficient at
respirationrespiration
�� Most common in Most common in
singlesingle--celled celled
organismsorganisms
�� EX: YeastEX: Yeast
Alcoholic FermentationAlcoholic Fermentation
�� This is what puts the This is what puts the
fizz in alcoholic fizz in alcoholic
beveragesbeverages
�� Yeast consumes sugar Yeast consumes sugar
and produces carbon and produces carbon
dioxide and a small dioxide and a small
amount of energyamount of energy
LacticLactic--acid Fermentationacid Fermentation
�� Fermentation which Fermentation which occurs within muscle cellsoccurs within muscle cells
�� When working hard, When working hard, muscles use up oxygen muscles use up oxygen faster than the blood can faster than the blood can provide itprovide it
�� Fermentation releases a Fermentation releases a burst of necessary energy burst of necessary energy leaving lacticleaving lactic--acid behindacid behind
�� This causes muscles to This causes muscles to temporarily feel weak or temporarily feel weak or sore after extensive sore after extensive workoutsworkouts
15
Cells DivisionCells Division
““How old cells produce How old cells produce
new cellsnew cells””
The Cell CycleThe Cell Cycle�� The regular sequence of growth and division that The regular sequence of growth and division that
cells undergocells undergo
�� The length of the cycle depends on the individual The length of the cycle depends on the individual
cellcell
�� Ex; 2 hours in a sea urchin, 22 hours for a human Ex; 2 hours in a sea urchin, 22 hours for a human
liver cellliver cell
�� However; some cells never divide, they remain in However; some cells never divide, they remain in
Interphase for as long as they liveInterphase for as long as they live
�� Ex. Human brain cellsEx. Human brain cells--this is why brain damage is this is why brain damage is
such a serious concern for humanssuch a serious concern for humans
MitosisMitosis
�� The replication of 2 identical daughter The replication of 2 identical daughter
cells from one parent cell cells from one parent cell –– Cell DivisionCell Division
�� The process which produces new body The process which produces new body
cellscells
�� The Process is as follows:The Process is as follows:
�� 1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis
Mitosis Mitosis –– 1. Interphase1. Interphase
�� cell grows to its cell grows to its
mature sizemature size
�� Centrosomes replicateCentrosomes replicate
�� DNA Replication DNA Replication
occursoccurs
�� The cell makes an The cell makes an
identical copy of its identical copy of its
Chromatin (DNA) to Chromatin (DNA) to
pass on to the pass on to the daughter cellsdaughter cells
Mitosis 2. ProphaseMitosis 2. Prophase
�� Chromatin in nucleus Chromatin in nucleus winds up to form pairs winds up to form pairs of chromosomes of chromosomes connected at a connected at a centromerecentromere
�� Spindle fibers begin to Spindle fibers begin to bridge the ends of the bridge the ends of the cellcell
�� Centrosomes migrate Centrosomes migrate to ends of the cellto ends of the cell
�� Nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane begins to dissolvebegins to dissolve
Mitosis 3. MetaphaseMitosis 3. Metaphase
�� Chromosomes line up Chromosomes line up
along the center line along the center line
of cellof cell
�� Spindle fiber attaches Spindle fiber attaches
to a chromosome at to a chromosome at
its its centromere centromere
(attachment point of (attachment point of
chromosomes) and a chromosomes) and a
Centrosomes at one Centrosomes at one
end of the cellend of the cell
16
Mitosis 4. AnaphaseMitosis 4. Anaphase
�� Centromeres split and Centromeres split and two chromatids two chromatids separateseparate
�� Spindle fibers pull Spindle fibers pull chromatids to chromatids to opposite sides of the opposite sides of the cellcell
�� Cells get stretched Cells get stretched out as chromatids pull out as chromatids pull apartapart
Mitosis 5. TelophaseMitosis 5. Telophase�� Chromosomes begin Chromosomes begin
to stretch out and to stretch out and lose their rodlose their rod--like like shape at ends of the shape at ends of the cellcell
�� Cleavage furrowCleavage furrowdevelopsdevelops
�� New Nuclear New Nuclear membranes form at membranes form at each end of the cell each end of the cell around the around the chromosomeschromosomes
Mitosis 6. CytokinesisMitosis 6. Cytokinesis
�� Cell membrane pinches in Cell membrane pinches in
at cleavage furrowat cleavage furrow
�� Eventually, cell pinches in Eventually, cell pinches in
twotwo
�� Two identical daughter Two identical daughter
cells resultcells result
�� Each has about half the Each has about half the
number of organelles and number of organelles and
cytoplasm as the original cytoplasm as the original
parent cellparent cell
Genetics:Genetics:
The Science of HeredityThe Science of Heredity
GregorGregor MendelMendel
�� The The ““Father of GeneticsFather of Genetics””
�� 18511851
�� Priest at a Central European Priest at a Central European
MonasteryMonastery
�� Worked with pea plants in the Worked with pea plants in the
monastery gardenmonastery garden
�� TRAITS:TRAITS: physical characteristicsphysical characteristics
�� HEREDITY:HEREDITY: passing of traits from passing of traits from
parent to offspringparent to offspring
MendelMendel’’s Peass Peas
�� Mendel notices that pea plants could take Mendel notices that pea plants could take
on different physical appearanceson different physical appearances
�� He purposely He purposely crosscross--pollinatedpollinated different different
forms of the peas and noted what the forms of the peas and noted what the
offspring looked likeoffspring looked like
�� Used the monastery garden to study the Used the monastery garden to study the
inheritance of traits from one generation inheritance of traits from one generation
of plant to the nextof plant to the next
17
PurebredPurebred
�� Organism that always produces offspring Organism that always produces offspring
with the same trait as the parentwith the same trait as the parent
�� Mendel used purebred plants because he Mendel used purebred plants because he
knew which traits the offspring would knew which traits the offspring would
havehave
�� Ex: Purebred Tall pea plants produced Ex: Purebred Tall pea plants produced
purebred tall pea plantspurebred tall pea plants
�� Ex: purebred short plants produced Ex: purebred short plants produced
purebred short pea plantspurebred short pea plants
MendelMendel’’s 1s 1stst ExperimentExperiment
�� Mendel Crossed Mendel Crossed purebred tall plants with purebred tall plants with purebred short plantspurebred short plants
�� Parent plants were the PParent plants were the P--generationgeneration�� T = purebred tall; t = purebred shortT = purebred tall; t = purebred short
�� The offspring were called the The offspring were called the ““FF11”” or or ““first first filial (son) generationfilial (son) generation
�� Mendel found:Mendel found:�� All of the offspring were tallAll of the offspring were tall; even though one ; even though one
parent was shortparent was short
MendelMendel’’s 2s 2ndnd ExperimentExperiment
�� Mendel allowed the FMendel allowed the F11 offspring from offspring from
experiment #1 to selfexperiment #1 to self--pollinate and pollinate and
produce offspringproduce offspring
�� Mendel found:Mendel found:
�� OffspringOffspring--FF22 (second filial):(second filial):
�� 3 out of 4 plants were tall3 out of 4 plants were tall
�� 1 out of 4 plants was short1 out of 4 plants was short
MendelMendel’’s other Testss other Tests
�� Mendel also tested:Mendel also tested:�� Seed shape, seed color, seed coat color, pod Seed shape, seed color, seed coat color, pod
shape, pod color, flower positionshape, pod color, flower position
�� The results were identical to his stem The results were identical to his stem height testsheight tests::�� FF11 Generation: all purebred traitGeneration: all purebred trait
�� FF2 2 Generation: Generation: ¾¾ of offspring were purebred of offspring were purebred traittrait
Dominant and Recessive Dominant and Recessive
AllelesAlleles
�� Genes:Genes: the factors which control traitsthe factors which control traits
�� Alleles:Alleles: the different forms of a genethe different forms of a gene
�� Individual alleles control the inheritance of traitsIndividual alleles control the inheritance of traits
�� Dominant allele:Dominant allele:�� One whose trait always shows up in the organism if One whose trait always shows up in the organism if
the allele is presentthe allele is present
�� Recessive allele:Recessive allele:�� One whose trait is masked or covered up when the One whose trait is masked or covered up when the
dominant allele is presentdominant allele is present
MendelMendel’’s Results:s Results:
ShortShortEndEndYellowYellowPinchedPinchedWhiteWhiteGreenGreenWrinkleWrinkle
dd
Controlled Controlled
by by
Recessive Recessive
AlleleAllele
TallTallSideSideGreenGreenSmoothSmoothGrayGrayYellowYellowRoundRound
Controlled Controlled
by by
Dominant Dominant
AlleleAllele
Stem Stem
HeightHeightFlower Flower
PositionPositionPod Pod
ColorColorPod Pod
ShapeShape
Seed Seed
Coat Coat
ColorColor
Seed Seed
ColorColor
Seed Seed
ShapeShapeTraitsTraits
18
Understanding MendelUnderstanding Mendel’’s s
CrossesCrosses
�� Hybrids:Hybrids:
�� Having two different alleles for the same traitHaving two different alleles for the same trait
�� The Allele for the dominant trait shows up in The Allele for the dominant trait shows up in
the offspringthe offspring
�� MendelMendel’’s Fs F11 Generation:Generation:
�� All tall; all hybrid for the tall trait (All tall; all hybrid for the tall trait (TtTt))
�� MendelMendel’’s Fs F22 Generation:Generation:
�� ¾¾ tall; 3 plants were purebred Tall (TT)tall; 3 plants were purebred Tall (TT)
�� ¼¼ short; 1 plant was purebred Short (short; 1 plant was purebred Short (tttt))
Using Symbols in GeneticsUsing Symbols in Genetics
�� Using symbols is a shorthand method of Using symbols is a shorthand method of
representing alleles in genetic crossesrepresenting alleles in genetic crosses
�� Rules:Rules:
�� 1. Dominant alleles get CAPITAL letters1. Dominant alleles get CAPITAL letters
�� Ex: trait for Ex: trait for ““Tall StemsTall Stems”” = T= T
�� 2. Recessive alleles get lowercase version of letters2. Recessive alleles get lowercase version of letters
�� Ex: trait for Ex: trait for ““short stemsshort stems”” = t= t
�� Ex: Purebred tall = TT; Purebred short = Ex: Purebred tall = TT; Purebred short = tttt
�� Ex: Hybrid Tall = Ex: Hybrid Tall = TtTt; ; there cannot be a hybrid there cannot be a hybrid shortshort
Probability and GeneticsProbability and Genetics
The The ““NumbersNumbers--GameGame”” of lifeof life
ProbabilityProbability
�� The mathematical likelihood that a The mathematical likelihood that a
particular event will happenparticular event will happen
�� Used by scientists to predict the results of Used by scientists to predict the results of
genetic crossesgenetic crosses
�� GregorGregor Mendel was the first to recognize Mendel was the first to recognize
this!!!!!!!!this!!!!!!!!
Phenotype Vs. GenotypePhenotype Vs. Genotype
�� Phenotype:Phenotype:
�� OrganismOrganism’’s physical s physical
appearanceappearance
�� The physical traits an The physical traits an
organism possessesorganism possesses
�� Ex: size, color, Ex: size, color,
structure, etc.structure, etc.
�� Genotype:Genotype:
�� The actual genetic The actual genetic
makeup of an makeup of an organismorganism
�� Combination of allelesCombination of alleles
�� Ex: Ex: TtTt, , tttt, TT, Etc., TT, Etc.
Homozygous Vs. HeterozygousHomozygous Vs. Heterozygous
�� Homozygous:Homozygous:
�� An organism which An organism which
possesses two possesses two identical alleles for a identical alleles for a
traittrait
�� Received the same Received the same allele from each parentallele from each parent
�� Ex: TT, Ex: TT, tttt, BB, bb, BB, bb
�� Heterozygous:Heterozygous:
�� An organism that has An organism that has
two different alleles for two different alleles for a traita trait
�� Received the dominant Received the dominant
allele from one parent allele from one parent and the recessive and the recessive
allele from the otherallele from the other
�� Ex: Ex: TtTt, Bb, Bb
19
Punnett SquaresPunnett Squares
�� A chart that shows all A chart that shows all
the possible the possible
combinations of combinations of
alleles that can result alleles that can result
from a genetic crossfrom a genetic cross
�� Used by geneticists to Used by geneticists to
calculate the calculate the
probability of probability of
particular outcomesparticular outcomes
Steps for using a Punnett SquareSteps for using a Punnett Square
�� 1. Define your Alleles1. Define your Alleles
�� Ex: T = Tall; t = shortEx: T = Tall; t = short
�� 2. Draw your Punnett Square and label 2. Draw your Punnett Square and label
the allelesthe alleles
�� 3. Fill the chart in by completing the cross3. Fill the chart in by completing the cross
�� 4. Write out the possible outcomes and 4. Write out the possible outcomes and
the probability that they will occurthe probability that they will occur
Purebred Tall X Purebred Short Purebred Tall X Purebred Short
Pea Plant CrossPea Plant Cross
T T
t
t
% Tall=
% Short =
Hybrid Tall plant X Hybrid Tall Hybrid Tall plant X Hybrid Tall
plant Crossplant Cross
T t
T
t
% Tall=
% Short =
Purebred Tall plant X Hybrid Tall Purebred Tall plant X Hybrid Tall
plant Crossplant Cross
T T
T
t
% Tall=
% Short =
CodominanceCodominance
�� A situation where the alleles for a trait are A situation where the alleles for a trait are
not dominant or recessivenot dominant or recessive
�� The offspringThe offspring’’s phenotype shows a s phenotype shows a
combination of both traitscombination of both traits
�� Ex: Chicken Feathers:Ex: Chicken Feathers:
�� Black and white feathers are Black and white feathers are codominantcodominant so so
the the offspring from a pure white and a pure offspring from a pure white and a pure black chicken has white and black feathersblack chicken has white and black feathers