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Transcript of cell structure
Ch. 7 Cell Structure
Biology
Cytology
• The Study of Cells
History of Cytology
• Begins with the invention of the microscope
• Zacharias Janssen (fix your notes!) credited with the invention of the compound microscope
• Late 1500’s
Robert Hooke
• Coined the term “cell”– Did this while observing cork
cells– Really the cell walls of dead
plant cells from bark
• Published his observations in the book Micrographia
• Influenced many others• Click here for more on
Robert Hooke
Robert Hooke
• Hooke’s microscope was not as good as some (especially those of Leeuwenhoek), but he was still able to make many observations and detailed drawings.
Robert Hooke
• Hooke’s drawings of cork cells
• He also made many other detailed drawings of organisms he viewed with his microscope.– The flea
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
• Was not the first microscope maker, but made some of the best early microscopes
• Very high magnifications for the time – up to 300x
• 1600s
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
• Observed first living cells– Pond water, various
bodily fluids that had bacteria swimming about in them, etc.
– Remember that the cells Hooke observed were non-living (cork)
– For more on how his microscope worked, click here.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
• Images he drew of bacteria in plaque removed from his teeth.
• These are the first known observations of bacteria
• He called them “animalcules”
Robert Brown• 1st to observe a nucleus
in a cell (1833)– The instrument is
Brown’s microscope– The image below is what
Brown would have seen when he made his discovery. These are cells from an orchid leaf.
• The nuclei are the small dots in each cell
• The big things are stomata
Matthias Schleiden
• Said that all plants are made of cells– 1838
Theodore Schwann
• Said all animals are made of cells
• 1839
Rudolf Virchow
• All cells are made from other cells
• 1855• Before this time it had
been thought that cells could arise spontaneously from non-life
The Cell Theory
• The work of all the scientists listed is compiled into one large idea called The Cell Theory
• Remember – a theory is an explanation for observations that – Is supported by a large body of evidence– Has been tested MANY times– Explains MANY things– It may be revised or improved, but stands as our best
explanation for observations we have.
The Cell Theory
• All living things are composed of cells • Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things• All cells come from pre-existing cells
Microscopes
• Compound• Dissecting• Scanning Electron• Transmission Electron
Compound Light Microscope
• Called compound because TWO lenses are combined to magnify the image – not just one.– Eyepiece (ocular)– Objective lens
Limitations of the Compound Microscope
• Images must be small and mounted on a slide
Compound Microscope Parts
• Ocular– Also called eyepiece– Usually magnifies 10x– Needle inside for
pointing to objects
• Body or Arm
Compound Microscope Parts
• Revolving nosepiece– Holds objective lenses– Rotates so that correct
objective can be chosen
• Objective Lens– Usually a “low”,
“medium” and “high” power
Compound Microscope Parts• Attached to the nosepiece• Low Power
– Usually 4x– Widest field of view– Least magnification– Used first to observe– Coarse focus
• High Power– Usually 40x– Narrowest field of view– Most magnification– Use only after low and
medium powers– Fine focus only
More Microscope Parts• Stage• Diaphragm
– Controls the amount of light that strikes the specimen• Focus knobs
– Coarse• Moves the stage in large amounts• Used only with low power
– Fine• Moves the stage in small amounts• Used with high power (but can be used with any)
• Light source• Base
Dissecting Microscope
• Two oculars• Low magnification• Large specimens may be
observed
About Field of View
• Wide field of view– Large area– Specimen appears small– Good for specimens that move a lot and quickly
• Narrow field of view– Small area– Specimen appears large– Good for specimens that are still and for which you want
to see greater detail
Field of View
• Top image– Wide field of view
• Bottom image– Narrow field of view
Scanning Electron Microscope
• VERY large magnification– 1000s of times
• External views• 3-D appearance• Click here to see how
the SEM works and to see images from an SEM
Transmission Electron Microscope
• VERY large magnifications– 1000s of times
• Views cross-sections of images– Inside a cell
• 2-D views• Click here to see how a
TEM works and images from one
Cell Types
• There are TWO major types of cells– Prokaryotic– Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic Cells
• BACTERIA• Simple• No nucleus• No organelles that are
surrounded by membranes
• Most ancient cell type– First to evolve
• Most primitive
Eukaryotic Cells• Everything EXCEPT Bacteria
– Protists, fungi, plants and animals are made up of this type of cell
• Complex• Nucleus present• Organelles surrounded by
membranes• The more recent cell type
– Evolved AFTER prokaryotes• More complex
– More sophisticated parts and functions
Two Major Types of Eukaryotic Cells
• Plant• Animal
Plant Cells
• Plant Cells– Cell wall made of
cellulose– Large central vacuole– Chloroplasts present
Animal Cells• No cell walls• No chloroplasts• Vacuoles are present,
but no large centrally located one.
Cell Size• Cells are small. Why?
– Cells must have a large surface area to volume ratio
– large surface area and small volume allows for adequate amounts of materials to move in and out of the cell to nourish a relatively small volume
– If cell volume were larger, the cell surface size would not increase enough with volume to service the whole cell.
Folds in Cells
• Whenever you see a folded surface in a cell, you can pretty much bet that it is there to increase surface area of the structure in question…
Organelles
• Cell parts or compartments – “little organs”• Separate chemical processes
– Allow chemical processes that are incompatible with each other to occur within a single cell.
Generalized Eukaryotic Cell
Cell Size• Most cells are relatively
small because as size increases, volume increases much more rapidly.
• This makes for a longer diffusion time
Visualizing Cells
Prokaryotic Cells• Simplest organisms
– Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane and encased in a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan.• no distinct interior compartments
–gram-positive – thick single layer wall that retains a violet dye from Gram stain procedure
–gram-negative – multilayered wall does not retain dye
»Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics depends on cell wall structure.
Prokaryotic Cells
• Some use flagellum for locomotion– threadlike structures protruding from cell surface
Bacterial cell wall
Flagellin
Rotarymotor
Sheath
Eukaryotic Cells
• Characterized by compartmentalization by an endomembrane system, and the presence of membrane-bound organelles.– Central vacuole – plants, storage– Vesicles (smaller)– Chromosomes - DNA and protein– Cytoskeleton (internal protein scaffolding)– Cell walls – plants and fungi
Nucleus• Repository for genetic material• Directs activities of the cell• Usually single, some cells several, RBC none
– Nucleolus – ribosome sub-units are made here;• Surface of nucleus bound by two phospholipid
bilayer membranes– nuclear membrane– Nuclear pores – protein gatekeepers
• Usually proteins going in and RNA going out
Nucleus
Chromosomes
• DNA of eukaryotes is divided into linear chromosomes. – exist as strands of chromatin, except during cell
division– associated with packaging histones, packaging
proteins• nucleosomes
Endomembrane System• Compartmentalizes cell, channeling passage of molecules through cell’s interior.– Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough ER - studded with ribosomes• Smooth ER - few ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum• Largest internal membrane• Composed of Lipid bilayer• Serves as system of channels from the nucleus• Functions in storage and secretion• Rough ER is “rough” because of associated
ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis• Smooth ER - lack associated ribosomes –
contained embedded enzymes, catalyze synthesis of carbohydrate and lipid molecules.
Endomembrane System• Golgi apparatus
– collection of Golgi bodies• collect, package, and distribute molecules
synthesized at one location in the cell and utilized at another location
• Front - cis , Back – trans• Cisternae – stacked membrane folds
Vesiclebuddingfrom roughendoplasmicreticulum
Fusionof vesiclewith Golgiapparatus
Migratingtransportvesicle
Protein
Proteins
Transportvesicle
Golgiapparatus
Cisternae
Ribosome
trans face
cis face
Endomembrane System• Vesicles– Lysosomes - membrane-bound vesicles containing
digestive enzymes – from Golgi– Microbodies - enzyme-bearing, membrane-enclosed
vesicles.• Peroxisomes - contain enzymes that catalyze the removal
of electrons and associated hydrogen atoms• Peroxisome – named for hydrogen peroxide produced as a
by-product • Enzyme breaks H2O2 down to water and oxygen
Cytoplasm
PhagocytosisFood
vesicleGolgi
apparatus
Lysosomes
Plasmamembrane
Digestion ofphagocytizedfood particles
or cells
Endoplasmicreticulum
Transportvesicle
Old or damagedorganelle
Breakdownof old
organelleExtracellularfluid
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are RNA-protein complexes composed of two subunits that join and attach to messenger RNA.– site of protein synthesis– assembled in nucleoli
Organelles With DNA
• Mitochondria – bounded by exterior and interior membranes– interior partitioned by cristae
• Chloroplasts– have enclosed internal compartments of stacked
grana, containing thylakoids– found in photosynthetic organisms
MitochondriaA. "Powerhouse of the cell" - cellular metabolism
B. Structure- outer and inner membranes, cristae
C. Have their own DNA
Chloroplasts•Chloroplasts are larger and more complex than mitochondria
•Grana – closed compartments of stacked membranes
•Thylakoids – disc shaped structure – light capturing pigment
•Stroma – fluid matrix
Endosymbiosis
• Endosymbiotic theory suggests engulfed prokaryotes provided hosts with advantages associated with specialized metabolic activities.
Theory of Endosymbiosis
Evidence for the endosymbiont theory is that mitochondria and chloroplasts:
- Are appropriate size to be descendants of eubacteria. - Have inner membranes similar to those on prokaryotic
plasma membranes. - Replicate by splitting, as in prokaryotes. - DNA is circular and different from the DNA of the cell's
nucleus. - Contain their own components for DNA transcription and
translation into proteins . - Have ribosomes similar to prokaryotic ribosomes. - Molecular systematics lend evidence to support this
theory. - Many extant organisms are involved in endosymbiotic
relationships.
Cytoskeleton• Network of protein fibers supporting cell shape and
anchoring organelles– Actin filaments
• cell movement– Microtubules
• Hollow tubes• Facilitate cell movement• Centrioles – barrel shaped • organelles occur in pairs – • help assemble animal cell’s microtubules
– Intermediate filaments• Stable - don’t break down
Actin
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
Cytoskeleton
Plant Cells
• Central vacuole – often found in the center of a plant, and serves as
a storage facility for water and other materials• Cell wall
– primary walls – laid down while cell is growing– middle lamella – glues cells together– secondary walls – inside the primary cell walls
after growth
Plant Cell
Animal Cells• Animal cells lack cell walls.
– form extracellular matrix• provides support, strength, and resilience
Modified from: http://www.coe.unt.edu/ubms/documents/classnotes/ Fall2005/Chapter%205%20-%20Cell%20Structure.ppt