BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

THEORIES

CBT is a psychological treatment that addresses the interactions between how we think, feel and behave.

The development and administration of CBT have been closely guided by research.

Evidence now supports the effectiveness of CBT for many common mental disorders.

CBT is a process of teaching, coaching, and reinforcing positive behaviours.

CBT helps people to identify cognitive patterns or thoughts and emotions that are linked with behaviours.

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Bolded

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho

1) Classical Conditioning– Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

BackgroundRussian physiologist/scientist (Learning Theorist)

His initial focus was on the physiology of digestion, which led him to create a science of conditioned reflexes.

Pavlov paid special attention to the phenomenon of “psychic secretion”, which is caused by food stimuli at a distance from the animal.

Conditioning – behavioral process whereby a response becomes more frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement - typically being a stimulus or reward for a desired response

Key Terms

Something that elicits a response That which can evoke a response or has an

influence on a system to act.

Examples?SmellsWordsActionsNoisesMemories

What is a Stimulus?

Pavlov

Rang bell before feeding dogs & soon dogs began to salivate at sound of bell alone The dogs had been

conditioned to salivate in response to the new stimulus (bell)

Acronym

Name Definition Food Example

Pavlov’s Example

 UCS

     

 

 UCR

   

   

 NS

   

   

 CS

   

   

 CR

   

   

Copy the chart in your notebook:

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)Unconditionally, naturally, and automatically

triggers a response For example, when you smell one of your

favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)The unlearned response that occurs naturally

in response to the unconditioned stimulus In the example, the feeling of hunger in

response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

Key Terms:Into your chart

Neutral Stimulus (NS) A stimulus that is not connected or associated with the unconditioned

stimulus, but is paired with the UCS to create meaning and conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (NS) always becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Example: Whistle – see example below for CS

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the

unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. Suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a

whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)The conditioned response is the learned response to the

previously neutral stimulus. The conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of

the whistle.

Into your chart

(Not Conditioned):UCS = food UCR = salivation

(Process of Conditioning): UCS (food) + NS (bell) UCR =

salivation

(Conditioned):NS becomes CS, therefore,

CS = bell CR = salivation

Pavlov’s Example: Into your chart

After conditioning has taken place, repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS will make the CR weaker and eventually make it disappear causing...

As you just learned, repeatedly pairing a CS with a UCS will produce a CR.

However…

Extinction

Ivan Pavlov’s term to describe the theory that animals could be trained in a particular way to respond to a given stimulus

Can be connected to how humans learn as well…

Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans

John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise.  At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise, Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise induced fear. The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.

Remember Baby Albert?Classical Conditioning was also proven

by behavioural psychologist John Watson in 1920.

He put an 11-month old boy, Albert, in a room with a white rat. As Albert approached the rat, Watson would make loud noises with a metal bar (NS).

He soon learned to associate the rat (and any other rat, as well as the colour white) with fear. (CS-CR)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI&feature=related

▫The Office - Pavlov's dog on Vimeo

▫Pavlov’s Bar: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xEDxRCa_wfc

▫What are the UCR and UCS in each example?

▫What is the NS in each example?▫What are the CS and CR in each

example?

Fun Examples of Classical Conditioning with Humans

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUwCgFSb6Nk

2) Operant Conditioning – BF Skinner (1904 – 1990)

Background –

American behavioural psychologist (Learning Theorist)

Conducted learning experiments on rats and pigeons, believed results could be applied to human behaviour

His experiments helped him develop his theory of operant conditioning

Learning can be programmed by whatever consequence follows a particular behaviour

B.F. Skinner’s term for the learning theory that uses praise and punishment to teach new or appropriate skills and behaviours or to extinguish undesirable ones

Learn to behave in a certain manner through operating on a person’s need to avoid pain and seek pleasure

Humans can learn through praise or punishment

Operant Conditioning Only bolded

information

Key Terms: Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement

Consequences increase the probability of the behavior – want the positive behaviour to continue

1. Tangibles: food, drink2. Favorite activities: visiting family, watching TV, dancing,

listening to music, singing 3. Attention: positive/negative verbals, physical contact4. Social reinforcers: praise, positive feedback

Punishment Consequences decrease the probability of the behavior – want to discourage negative behaviour

5. Verbal reprimand6. Time out7. Removing a privilege

1. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT increases behavior by the addition of a desirable event when the behavior occurs.

• Praise• Edibles• Money

2. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT increases behavior by the removal of an aversive event when the behavior occurs.

• Excuse from chores • Escape from a crowd• Stops pain

Reinforcement

1. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT decreases behavior by the addition of an aversive event when the behavior occurs.

• Verbal reprimand • Increased work

2. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT decreases behavior by removing a desirable event.

• Time out• Removing Privileges• Fines

Punishment

In Summary…

+

+ Reinforcement:Increases behavior by adding something good.

+ Punishment: Decreases behavior by adding something bad.

-

- Reinforcement:Increases behavior by taking away something bad.

- Punishment: Decreases behavior by taking away something good.

Optional

Skinner in ActionSkinner’s Experiment – Pigeon Conditioninghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHAhttp://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4

Skinner todayOperant Conditioning – YouTube – Big Bang

TheoryRick Mercer: Behaviour Modification – YouTube

Operant Conditioning Key Term: Schedules of Reinforcement –

Schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.

Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response.

Ex: Toilet Training a Child – giving a treat each time they use the potty

Continuous Reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time.

Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction – behaviour will last longer.

Partial Reinforcement

Interval – based on amount of time (i.e. seconds, minutes, days…) that the reinforcement occurs

Ratio – based on number of times one does a behaviour

Fixed – reinforcement happens after the same amount of time elapses (i.e. every 10 minutes or every 10th behaviour)

Variable – occurs at random/unpredictable time periods or amount of times an individual accomplishes a behaviour (1, 3, 4, 7, 12 minutes or behaviours)

Now let’s put them together…

Key Terms:

Fixed-ratio schedules - are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedules - occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedules - are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedules - occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

4 schedules of partial reinforcement:

Fixed ratio schedule (FR) - delivers reinforcement after every (n)th responseExample: Rat reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses

in a Skinner box – FR5Example: Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10

cars sold on the lot – FR10

Variable ratio schedule (VR) – a reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses necessary to produce reinforcement varies from trial to trial.

A VR schedule of VR4 means that if one averaged the number of reinforcers, every fourth desired response was reinforced.Example: VR4 = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses,

second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12, 12÷3 (# of trials)= 25% or 1 in 4 chance of receiving pellet)

Example: slot machines (because, though the chance of someone of hitting the jackpot is constant/always present, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable)

Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after every (n)th amount of timeExample: FI15 = rat is reinforced for the first

bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement

Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average every (n)th amount of time. The 'n' is an average.Example: checking your e-mail or pop quizzesExample: Going fishing—you might catch a fish

after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 18 minutes – (you catch 3 fish, 1 after 35 minutes, 1 after 60 minutes, and 1 after 75 minutes. Average is 35+60+75 = 170 ÷ 3 = 56.6 Therefore, the VI value is 56.6 minutes.

3) Albert Bandura – Social Learning Theory (Observational Learning

Theory)

Albert Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory is based on the idea that: We learn from our interactions with others in a

social context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors.

Social Learning Theory

Sometimes certain behaviours are best learned through observation and imitation

Social learning can take place even if a considerable amount of time has passed since the behaviour was first observed

Performing an observed behaviour depends on whether we respect or like the model and what consequences the model experiences from performing the behaviour

Albert Bandura’s 4 processes :

1. Attention Pay attention to behaviour of others

2. Retention Store mental representations of what

you observe in your memory3. Reproduction

Convert your stored memory into action Including physical capabilities, self-

observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback

4. Motivation You must be motivated in order to

practise the skill Have to believe the skill is useful or

important to you

Extension of Social Learning Theory

4) Trial and Error

It is possible to learn new behaviours or change behaviours through personal experience, or trial and error

Attempt to learn a new behaviour and learn from our mistakes practicing to reduce error

Trial and Error

5) Systematic Desensitization/Exposure

Therapy

Counter-conditioning - a process used in behavioral therapy in which a learned response is replaced by an alternative response that is less disruptiveLearning a new conditioned behaviour to

replace an undesirable one

Key Term

A type of counter-conditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli

Commonly used to treat phobiasBelieved you cannot be simultaneously anxious and relaxed

therefore if you can repeatedly relax when facing anxiety-provoking stimuli, you can gradually eliminate your anxiety process is gradual

First create a hierarchy of the anxiety-provoking situation (from least-feared to most-feared)

Systematic Desensitization

Psychologist would use progressive muscle relaxation to train you to relax one muscle at a time

Whenever anxiety is induced, the individual provides a cue to the psychologist who has the individual go back to relaxation

Relaxed state used to desensitize the person to each imagined situation on the hierarchy followed by practice in real-life situations

Systematic Desensitization cont’d

6) Aversive Conditioning

A type of counter-conditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behaviour

Example: nail-biting paint fingernails with poor-tasting nail polish

Also referred to as aversion therapy, a technique used in behaviour therapy to reduce the appeal of behaviours one wants to eliminate by associating them with physical or psychological discomfort.

In aversive conditioning, the client is exposed to an unpleasant stimulus while engaging in the targeted behaviour, the goal being to create an aversion to it. In adults, aversive conditioning is often used to combat addictions such as smoking or alcoholism. One common method is the administration of a nausea-producing drug...

Often used in combination with other treatment/therapy

Aversive Conditioning

7) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Main Ideas - American psychologist best know for his

analysis of human needsThese basic needs, which he organized into a

hierarchy, range from basic survival through the need for security, love and esteem

He argues when we have satisfied the need at one level of the hierarchy, rather than become satisfied overall, we tend to move on and try to satisfy the need at the next level

We are able to move up and down the levels – we do not remain at one level consistently once we reach it

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self ActualizationHighest level there is self-actualization -

people who are able to dedicate themselves to serving others

There are very few who reach this level, they are secure, loved, and loving individuals who are able to dedicate themselves to serving others, believing that all humans share common bonds – e.g. Mother Teresa

Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence

8) ABC Model of Behaviour Modification

The A stands for antecedents.  What is going on just before the behavior occurs?The setting, situation, contact that immediately precedes a behavior)

The B stands for the behavior. The focus is on behavior which is observable. Observable and objective – not subjective, not an emotion)

The C stands for consequences.  The questions are asked:  What was the reaction immediately following the behavior?  How was the behavior reinforced/treated?

Key Terms:

Using the ABC model is an effective way to understand why a behavior happens.

Being able to look at several ABC data sheets provides a brief ‘snapshot’ of what is going on when an individual engages in a particular behavior.

It enables us to see what is going on in the environment before the behavior that might trigger it, and what happens after the behavior that might maintain it.

Rationale of ABC Model Bolded

http://www.autism-help.org/story-ABA-autism.htm

Read as a classIn your notes, briefly explain:

Objectivity vs SubjectivityHow the ABC Model applies to a child with

AutismPrinciples of BehaviourHow to Choose a Reinforcer

Autism Example:

9) Goal Setting

Goal setting involves remaining committed to an established objective.

It allows the individual to have an interest in changing their behaviour by setting attainable and meaningful goals for their progress

Goal setting replaces undesirable behaviors (e.g., behaviors in conflict with the goal) with activities and behaviors that are in keeping with the agenda of the modification program.

10) Imposing Environmental Limitations

In this technique, elements or stimuli in the environment are reduced or removed to stop and prevent undesirable behavior patterns from emerging.

As an example, removing pastries or processed foods from access to an exercise group encourages more positive and healthy foods.

Imposing Environmental Limitations-

11) Theory of Planned Behaviour

Explains the link between attitudes and behaviours

It essentially proposes a model for how and why human action is guided by trying to understand the motivational forces behind their behaviour

The model highlights what influences a persons decisions, and attempts to reveal The model suggests that in order to predict whether a person intends to do something, we need to know:Whether the person is in favour of doing it (attitude);How much the person feels social pressure to do it

(subjective norm);Whether the person feels in control of the action in

question (perceived behavioural control).If we can understand the attitudes of individuals

and what influences the choices they make, there is a greater chance of influencing them to change their behaviours.

. Why we might individuals make certain choices?