CBSS_Technician Guide

The Community-based seed system: The case of traditional rice farming systems

The Technician’s ManualAmadou M. Bèye, Monty P. Jones and Brent M. Simpson

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About Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice)

The Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) is a leading pan-African research organization working to contribute to poverty alleviation and food security in Africa through research, development and partnership activities. It is one of the 15 international agricultural research Centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). It is also an autonomous intergovernmental research association of African member countries.

The Center was created in 1971 by 11 African countries. Today its membership comprises 24 countries, covering West, Central, East and North African regions, namely Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt ,Gabon, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Madagscar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and Uganda.

AfricaRice’s temporary headquarters is based in Cotonou, Benin; research staff are also based in Senegal, Nigeria, Tanzania and Côte d’Ivoire.

For more information, please visit www.africaricecenter.org

Temporary Headquarters and Research Center

Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice)

01 BP 2031, Cotonou, Benin

Tel.: (229) 21 35 01 88; Fax : (229) 21 35 05 56

E-mail: [email protected]

Nigeria Research Station c/o International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)Oyo Road, PMB 5320IbadanNigeria

Tel: (234-2) 241 2626Fax: (234-2) 241 2221

E-mail: [email protected]

Sahel Research Station

AfricaRice, B.P. 96, Saint-Louis, Senegal

Tel: (221) 962 6493 (221) 962 6441Fax: (221) 962 6491E-mail: [email protected]

Tanzania Research Station

c/o Mikocheni B/Kawe PO Box 33581Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Tel: (255) 222 780 768 (255) 744 788 495Fax: (255) 222 780 768E-mail: [email protected]

Bouaké Research Station

01 BP 2551 Bouak 01,Côte d’Ivoire

Tel : (225) 31 63 25 78Fax : (225) 20 22 01 33E-mail : [email protected]

$ELGMDQ�/LDLVRQ�2I¿FH��

01 BP 4029, Abidjan 01, Côte d’Ivoire

Tel : (225) 20 22 01 10 (225) 20 21 28 79Fax : (225) 20 22 01 33E-mail : [email protected]

The Community-based seed system: The case of traditional rice farming

systems

The Technician’s Manual

2011


Afr

caR ce

Amadou M. Bèye1, Monty P. Jones2 and Brent M. Simpson3

1Africa Rice Center, Cotonou, Benin2Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa, Accra, Ghana

3Michigan State University, USA

CGIARGCRAI

© Copyright Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) 2011

AfricaRice encourages fair use of this material. Proper citation is requested. The designations employed in the presentation of materials in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries.

CitationBèye, A.M., M.P. Jones and B.M. Simpson, 2009. The Community-based seed system: The case of traditional rice farming systems. The Technician’s Manual. AfricaRice Training Course Collection. AfricaRice, Cotonou, Benin, xi + 69 p.

ISBN: Print 978-92-9113-331-4 PDF 978-92-9113-335-2

Cover picture: Farmers proudly showing their harvest of NERICA rice seeds

Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) BP 2031 Cotonou, BeninTel. +229 21.35.01.88 Fax +229 21.35.05.56 Email: [email protected] site: www.AfricaRice.org

Design: AfricaRice Layout: PAO Bougou, Bamako, Mali – [email protected]

Contents

Preface..................................................................................................................... vAcknowledgements ............................................................................................... viInformation on the manual ................................................................................... ix

Module I Seed systems and Farmers’ initiatives................................................................. 1

Objective .............................................................................................................. 3Conventional seed system ................................................................................... 3

Support from development agencies ..............................................................................9Quality Declared Seed ....................................................................................................9Truthful labeling ............................................................................................................10Traditional indigenous seed system or Farmers’ Initiatives ...........................................10

Community-Based Seed System ....................................................................... 11

Module II Community-based seed system implementation .............................................. 17

Objective ............................................................................................................ 19Rapid rural appraisal .......................................................................................... 19Useful discussion themes to be tackled during a rural appraisal ....................... 21Institutional aspects ............................................................................................ 24Organizational aspects at village community level ............................................. 27

Information ....................................................................................................................28Awareness raising .........................................................................................................28Inter-groups meetings ...................................................................................................29

Reinforcing farmers’ capacity in seed production............................................... 29

Module III Role of the main stakeholders of the community-based seed system ........... 33

Objective ............................................................................................................ 35Farmers’ organizations ....................................................................................... 35Basic seed producers ......................................................................................... 35Acceptable Quality seed producers ................................................................... 36)LHOG�RI¿FHUV��H[WHQVLRQ��SULYDWH�VHFWRU��1*2V� ................................................. 37Senior technicians (extension, private sector, NGOs) ........................................ 37National leaders (agriculture, research, extension, private sector) .................... 37

Module IV Interactions between varietal testing, variety release and seed production activities ................................................................................................................ 39

Objective ............................................................................................................ 41Varietal testing .................................................................................................... 41Releasing varieties ............................................................................................. 44Seed production ................................................................................................. 45Linkages between activities ............................................................................... 45

iii

The Technician’s Manual – The Community-based seed system: The case of traditional rice farming systems

iv


Module V Practical advice for maintaining seed quality.................................................... 48

Objective ............................................................................................................ 50Managing harvest and post-harvest operations ................................................. 50

Conservation in the granary in the Savannah zone ......................................................56Conservation in the kitchen in the Forest zone .............................................................57Conservation in sacks ...................................................................................................57Germination tests ..........................................................................................................58Purity test ......................................................................................................................58Checking purity .............................................................................................................59

Annexes $QQH[��&KDQQHO�IRU�FRQGXFWLQJ�D�VSHFL¿F�UXUDO�DSSUDLVDO ............................ 61Annex 2: Problem tree developed by farmers in Danané, in Côte d’Ivoire ..... 62Annex 3: Results of a participatory rural appraisal conducted in N’zerekore

in Guinea ......................................................................................... 63Annex 4: Comparison of prices in conventional and community-based seed

systems in Côte d’Ivoire ................................................................... 65Annex 5: Cost estimates of Registered seed production in N’Goran village,

in Côte d’Ivoire ................................................................................. 66Annex 6: Cost estimates of Acceptable Quality seed production in N’Goran

village, in Côte d’Ivoire ..................................................................... 67Annex 7: Recommended reading ................................................................... 68

v


Preface

This manual was elaborated based on farmers’ practices and knowledge in seed production, conservation and dissemination. It gives practical guidelines and recommendations on how to improve the farmer-saved seed production system used by farmers from generation to generation, to increase their productivity and market competitiveness.

The aim of the authors is to create a permanent dialogue among the major stakeholders by using participatory methods with a view to facilitating the availability of quality seed to farmers and contributing thereby to sustainable rice production in sub-Saharan African countries. The manual therefore enables technicians to better understand the ORFDO�VHHG�V\VWHPV��WKHLU�FRQVWUDLQWV��WKH�FDXVHV�RI�WKH�SUREOHPV�LGHQWL¿HG��DQG�SRVVLEOH�solutions.

In fact, it describes seed issues down to the community level and helps to build a national seed system based upon the improvement of the indigenous production techniques, the reinforcement of traditional seed diffusion networks and linkages to appropriate public sector institutions.

The community-based seed system is complementary to the conventional seed system. It aims to perfectly integrate the strengths and opportunities in both the conventional and the traditional seed systems and to enable traditional farmers meet their seed requirements by improving their know-how for addressing basic seed production and quality constraints. Consequently, it provides a good opportunity for farmers’ organizations to improve the supply of quality seeds in their communities and to gradually develop into viable seed enterprises.

Papa Abdoulaye SeckDirector General


vi


Acknowledgements

The manual is a follow-up to the work entitled Improved Farmer-Saved Seed Production System, published in 2000 and which has served as a basis for the community-based seed system.

The manual describes the strategy for implementation the community-based seed system, the role of the various partners, and the interactions among different stakeholders. Its development was initiated by Dr. Joseph Kwarteng, a Lecturer at the University of Cape Coast in Ghana. However, due to time constraints, Dr. Kwarteng could not complete the work as expected. The authors have therefore revised the entire manual.

The authors sincerely thank Dr. Kwarteng for the high quality of the work he started. They are also grateful to all Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) colleagues, who reviewed the manual, provided useful information and raised relevant questions. Among them are: Marie-Joseph Dugue, Aliou Diagne, Olaf Erenstein, Assetou Kanoute, Robert Guei, Kouame Miezan, Frederic Lançon, Guy Manners, Willem Stoop, Toon Defoer and Moustapha Gaye. Marijke Loosvelt edited the manual and Aissata Sylla did the desktop publishing.

We also acknowledge the contributions of Ankon Goli of the National Agency for Rural Development Support (ANADER) in Côte d’Ivoire, Ipou Gbangbo of the National Rice Project (PNR), Placide N’Guessan1 of the National Agronomic Research Center (CNRA), and Abibatou Diallo of the NGO OVDL2.

Like any new system, the community-based seed system needed a sustained support and inspiration from administrative authorities in order to start on a strong footing and to grow rapidly. This support was provided by Dr. Kanayo F. Nwanze, AfricaRice’s Director General (1995-2006), who was able to convince scientists on the need to take into account traditional indigenous knowledge in seed system models. The authors of this manual appreciate the advice and support provided by Dr. Nwanze and would like to thank him very much for these.

The Forum for Agrucltural Research in Africa (FARA) and Michigan State University (MSU) provided funds for translating the manual into French.

The authors

1Placide N’Guessan died during the civil war in Côte d’Ivoire 2Local Development Volunteers’ Organization

1

vii


The authors wish to warmly thank the following persons, who took part in the manual validation workshop from 27 to 31 March 2001. N° Surname and names Institution and/or position Location

1. Coulibaly Bema Prefecture Bouaké 2. Nagumo Fujio World Food Program Abidjan 3. Oya Bou Alain ANADER Abidjan 4. Dr Lançon Frederic AfricaRice scientist Bouaké 5. Kouame Christophe CNRA scientist Bouaké 6. Dr N’Degbeu N’Dri ANADER regional delegate Bouaké 7. Dr Traore Amadou Representing MINAGRA regional Director Bouaké 8. Kouame N’Dri ANADER specialized technician Mankono 9. Kouakou Kouadio Leonard ANADER specialized technician Vavoua 10. Latah Sour ANADER specialized technician Divo 11. Tiapo Kouame Felix ANADER specialized technician Katiola 12. Kpangassa Yao ANADER specialized technician Man 13. Soro Klotioloma ANADER specialized technician Bondoukou 14. Kouakou Yao Marc ANADER specialized technician Beoumi 15. Yapi Martial ANADER specialized technician Korhogo 16. Sylla Youssouf ANADER specialized technician Seguela 17. Mme Gbo Dzamla Amin ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 18. Koulou Nazarette ANADER specialized technician Bouna 19. D.E. Kouassi ANADER specialized technician Sakassou 20. Dje Bi Dje Felix ANADER specialized technician Dabakala 21. Diarrassouba Karim ANADER specialized technician Tabou 22. Gaille Blaigouere ANADER zone leader Korhogo 23. Cisse Ibrahima ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 24. Diarrassouba Ousmane ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 25. Dr Kadisha Katlombo ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 26. Diaby Karamoko ANADER specialized technician Yamoussoukro 27. Mme Amangoua Therese ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 28. Kissy Kraidy Michel ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 29. Toure Aboukari Sekou ANADER specialized technician Bouaké 30. Kouame Kouame Joseph ANADER specialized technician Abengourou 31. Yapo Yapo Jean Paul ANADER trainer Grand Lahou 32. Kouassi N’Goran Zone Leader Man 33. Akpoue Yao MINAGRA Bouaké 34. Gabehonry Karidioula Research Assistant Man 35. Dr N’Guessan Placide CNRA scientist Man 36. Kouadio N’Guessan Farmer Beoumi 37. Kouakou Kouakou Kan Farmer Beoumi 38. Kouakou Kossonou Farmer Bondoukou 39. Mme Ouattara Manaman Farmer Bondoukou 40. Mme Dabire Ziem Monique Farmer Bouna 41. Kambou Loufate Pierre Farmer Bouna�� 0PH�.RI¿�$GMRXD�5RVDOLH�� )DUPHU�� %URER 43. Ouamien Konan Prosper Farmer Brobo 44. Coulibaly Siaka Farmer Dabakala 45. Ouattara Tiguesolo Farmer Dabakala 46. Berte Moussa Farmer Katiola 47. Traore Karim Farmer Katiola 48. Kouassi N. Valentin Farmer Sakassou 49. Kouame N. Raymond Farmer Sakassou 50. Yeo Zana Farmer Niofouin 51. Pregnon Gnaore OVDL NGO Chairman Bouaké 52. Pregnon Zokou OVDL NGO Secretary Bouaké53. Mme Abibatou Diallo OVDL NGO Project Coordinator Bouaké54. Kpla Kadio Georges IDC NGO Coorperative Leader Agou

Resource persons 1. Dr. Guei Robert INGER-Africa Coordinator, AfricaRice Bouaké 2. Dr. Goly Ankon ANADER Seed Service Head Abidjan 3. Konan Gnamien ANADER Training Unit Head Bouaké 4. Ipou Gbangbo National Rice Project Yamoussoukro 5. N’Zue Kouame LANADA Yamoussoukro

Drawings: Inkpe Perpetue

viii


Information on the manual

* The manual provides the needed information on how to implement the Community-based seed systems at the technical, organizational and institutional levels.

ix


Information on the manual

Objective of the manual

,QVXI¿FLHQF\� RI� TXDOLW\� VHHG� LV� RQH� RI� WKH� PDMRU� FRQVWUDLQWV� WR� ULFH� SURGXFWLRQ�improvement in sub-Saharan Africa. National seed systems are unable to meet farmers’ needs in supplying quality seed of improved varieties and at affordable prices. Most farmers therefore regularly resort to traditional varieties and know-how in seed production, conservation and diffusion.

This knowledge, which has been acquired over many generations of plant breeding, conservation, utilization and seed exchange, is elaborated in the previous manual entitled “Improved Farmer-Saved Seed Production System”.

The authors of this new manual provide only the technical, organizational and institutional information required for a systematic implementation of the community-based seed system (CBSS). In fact, this manual is not designed as a guide for facilitators. This DVSHFW�LV�FRYHUHG�LQ�VSHFL¿F�GRFXPHQWV�LQ�ZKLFK�&%66�WUDLQLQJ�VHVVLRQV�DUH�GHWDLOHG�and their implementation explained.

The main pillars of the CBSS are farmers’ organizations and innovative farmers. These are mandated to markedly improve the seed quality and seed availability at the community level. Therefore, CBSS gives responsibilities to certain innovative farmers as focal points for farmers’ organizations to produce quality seed for supply to the community. Hence the name: Community-based seed system.

7KH� PDQXDO� ZDV� GHYHORSHG� WR� KHOS� VFLHQWLVWV�� DJURQRPLVWV� DQG� ¿HOG� WHFKQLFLDQV� WR�acquaint themselves with the community-based seed system by providing them with information on: (1) Farmer seed production techniques, (2) the importance of traditional variety diffusion networks, (3) low cost seed quality improvement methods and (4) institutional and organizational arrangements of the system.

x


End-users of the manual

The manual was designed for three categories of end-users:

x� $JURQRPLVWV�DQG�¿HOG�WHFKQLFLDQV�WR�KHOS�WKHP�WR�ZRUN�LQ�FORVH�FROODERUDWLRQ�ZLWK�IDUPHUV�LQ�RUGHU�WR�¿QG�ORFDO�VROXWLRQV�WR�VHHG�LVVXHV�LQ�WKHLU�FRPPXQLWLHV�

x� Breeders and agronomists involved in plant breeding and variety improvement DFWLYLWLHV��YDULHWDO�WHVWLQJ�DQG�GLIIXVLRQ�

x� Seed program leaders working at the ministries of agriculture and within agricultural research centers, who monitor seed legislation issues, and variety release and maintenance of elite seeds of principal cultivated varieties.

Outline of the manual

The manual was designed around seven principal questions:

1. What are the main seed systems existing at the local and national levels in sub-Saharan African countries?

2. How to value be added to farmers’ traditional know-how in seed production, conservation and distribution?

3. Why is it important to establish the community-based seed system? What are its advantages compared to the formal or conventional seed system?

4. Who are the main CBSS partners?

5. How can the implementation of the community-based seed system at the institutional, organizational and technical levels be ensured?

6. How can seed quality be maintained in the community-based seed system?

7. How can an effective interaction between the community-based seed system and varietal testing activities be achieved?

7R�DGGUHVV�WKHVH�LVVXHV��¿YH�PRGXOHV�ZHUH�GHYHORSHG��7KHVH�PRGXOHV�SURYLGH�DOO�WKH�critical information needed by public institutions, national research and extension SURJUDPV��DJURQRPLVWV�DQG�¿HOG�WHFKQLFLDQV�WR�IDFLOLWDWH�D�VPRRWK�LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ�RI�the community-based seed system.

xi


Module 1 describes the conventional seed system and farmer initiatives used to deal with farmers’ demands for quality seed. It also introduces the community-based seed system, its implementation and the concept of “Acceptable Quality Seed”.

Module 2 explains how to tackle seed issues through participatory appraisal methods. It then emphasizes the conditions for the success of this system both at institutional (what must public institutions do?) and community levels (how to consolidate the achievements of local initiatives through the reinforcement of seed networks and farmers’ capacity building).

Module 3 explains in detail the role of each stakeholder in the implementation of the community-based seed system. This approach seems to be fundamental because CBSS is a new system.

Module 4 describes links to be established between varietal testing and release activities within the community-based seed system. This module values the achievements made in research-development and explains how to anticipate the varietal release process and seed production activities.

Module 5 focuses on practical advice that can enhance seed quality maintenance.

Interactions between the various modules of the manual

Module I

Conventional system Traditional indigenoussystem

Community-based seedsystem

Module II: CBSS implementation (MoA, Research, Extension, NGOs, Private Sector,

Farmers’ Associations, and Innovative Farmers)

Module III: Role of the different CBSS partners (MoA, Research, Extension, NGOs,

Private Sector, Farmers’ Associations, and Seed Producers)

Module V: Advice for a good quality seed maintenance (Farmers’ Organizations and

Seed Producers)

Module IV: Interactions between activities (MoA, Research, Extension, NGOs, Private

Sector and Farmers)

Module ISeed systems and Farmers’

initiatives


2


Module I: Seed systems and Farmers’ initiatives

This module:

* aims to describe the existing seed systems within the sub-region, their advantages and limitations

* explains their organization and functions

* gives some alternative strategies

3



Objective

This module aims to describe existing seed systems within the sub-region, their advantages and limitations. It explains their organizational structures and functions and offers several alternative strategies.

There are three major categories of seed systems: (1) the conventional system commonly called the formal system and currently used in most sub-Saharan African countries, (2) the traditional system or farmers’ initiatives and (3) the community-based seed system which draws its strength from the opportunities offered by categories 1 and 2. It was designed by the Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research (ISRA) and developed further by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice). In contrast to the conventional system, the community-based seed system favors the full involvement of farmers in seed production, quality control, management and diffusion operations at the community level.

Conventional seed system

Organization and functioning of the system

Consistent with the regulation in force, the conventional seed system is usually regulated by the ministry of agriculture.

Six main activities are conducted within the framework under this system by well LGHQWL¿HG�SXEOLF�LQVWLWXWLRQV��7KHVH�DFWLYLWLHV�FRYHU�HVVHQWLDO�DVSHFWV�LQFOXGLQJ��

x� 6HHG�YDOXH�FKDLQ�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�x� )RXQGDWLRQ�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ�x� 5HJLVWHUHG�DQG�&HUWL¿HG�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ�x� 4XDOLW\�FRQWURO�x� 3URFHVVLQJ�DQG�VWRUDJH�x� Commercialization.

The seed value chain organization aims to ensure an effective functioning of the seed sector at all levels: villages, zones and regions. It helps to plan production activities, to WUDLQ�DQG�UHJLVWHU�VHHG�SURGXFHUV��DQG�WR�HVWDEOLVK�SURGXFWLRQ�FRQWUDFWV��,W�DOVR�GH¿QHV�varieties that will be cropped according to the locations involved. It helps to establish the process for variety release, diffusion, and marketing.

Foundation seed production is generally done by research centers or a specialized organization under very strict conditions in which each line is regularly inspected to detect any anomaly. It aims to increase breeder seed or G0 seed on one hand and to SURYLGH�VHHG�SURGXFHUV�ZLWK�VXI¿FLHQW�SXUH�)RXQGDWLRQ�VHHG��RQ�WKH�RWKHU��

4



5HJLVWHUHG�DQG�FHUWL¿HG�VHHG�RI�¿UVW�DQG�VHFRQG�JHQHUDWLRQV are produced by contract SURGXFHUV�ZKR�DUH�LGHQWL¿HG�DQG�PRQLWRUHG�E\�WKH�QDWLRQDO�VHHG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DJHQFLHV��These producers are often contracted by private seed companies to produce seed. The companies collect the harvests from production farms and process and store them in their premises. Alternatively the seed producers organize themselves into associations and use public sector facilities to process and store their seed. They are linked to seed GHDOHUV�ZKR�QHJRWLDWH�DQG�SXUFKDVH�WKH�FHUWL¿HG�VHHGV�LQ�EXON�DQG�PDUNHW�WR�IDUPHUV�

4XDOLW\�FRQWURO�DQG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�FRQGXFWHG�E\�DQ�RI¿FLDOO\�GHVLJQDWHG�DJHQF\�HQVXUHV�the compliance of production and quality standards through the use of appropriate seed rules and norms prescribed by the agency. These norms are adapted from international rules made by the International Seed Trial Association (ISTA), and the Association RI�2I¿FLDO�6HHG�$QDO\VWV��$26$��7KH\�FRYHU�DOO�VHHG�RSHUDWLRQV��VSHFL¿FDOO\�WKRVH�UHODWHG� WR�� ¿HOG� VHOHFWLRQ�� SUHFHGLQJ� FURS�� LVRODWLRQ� VWDQGDUGV�� YDULHW\� PDLQWHQDQFH��roguing, plant health protection, harvesting, processing, storage and quality testing.

4XDOLW\�FRQWURO�FRYHUV�¿HOG�LQVSHFWLRQV�DQG�ODERUDWRU\�DQDO\VHV��(&2:$6�QRUPV�DQG�VWDQGDUGV�IRU�¿HOG�LQVSHFWLRQV�DUH�DV�IROORZV�

Criteria Breeder seed

Foundation seed

&HUWL¿HG�seed

Minimum isolation distance in meters 10 5 3

Maximum percentage of off-type plants 0.05% 0.3% 0.5%

Maximum percentage of diseased plants 0.01% 0.01% 0.5%

2WKHU�FXOWLYDWHG�VSHFLHV�WKDW�DUH�GLI¿FXOW�WR�separate

0.01% 0.01% 0.02%

Maximum percentage of dangerous weeds 0.01% 0.01% 0.02%

,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR�WKH�DERYH�PHQWLRQHG�VWDQGDUGV�IRU�¿HOG�LQVSHFWLRQ��WKH�WHFKQLFLDQ�VKRXOG�verify that: (i) rice is not the preceding crop, unless the variety and the class of seed of the preceding crop are the same as the new crop (ii) the cultivar is uniform or in such a state that makes it possible to accurately determine varietal and species purities.

The rice seed production farm should be inspected at least once during the appearance RI�LQÀRUHVFHQFHV�

To determine the number of off-type plants and the number of plants of other species, the inspector should use the appropriate method such as the OECD “Guidelines for trials in control plots and the inspection of seeds”.

5



For laboratory analyses, the following standards should be respected:

Types of analyses Breeder seed

Foundation seed

&HUWL¿HG�VHHG��R1 R2

Minimum varietal purity 99.9% 99.9% 99.7% 99.7%

0LQLPXP�VSHFL¿F�SXULW\ 98% 98% 98% 98%

Minimum germination rate 80% 80% 80% 80%

Maximum moisture content 12% 12% 12% 12%

Maximum inert material 2% 2% 2% 2%

Seed of other cultivated species 10 seed/kg 10 seed/kg 0.5% 0.5%

Maximum noxious weed seed 10 seed/kg 10 seed/kg 0.5% 0,5%

Maximum red rice 0 0 5 seed/kg 5 seed/kg

$W�WKH�HQG�RI�WKH�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�SURFHVV��VHHG�ODEHOV�DUH�XVHG��,Q�&{WH�G¶,YRLUH�IRU�H[DPSOH��four types of labels are used for the different categories of seed:

x� Foundation seed: White with a purple diagonal stripex� Registered seed: Whitex� )LUVW�JHQHUDWLRQ�RI�FHUWL¿HG�VHHG: Bluex� 6HFRQG�JHQHUDWLRQ�RI�FHUWL¿HG�VHHG: Red

The number of classes (generations) and the color of tags may differ in different countries.

:KDWHYHU�WKH�FDWHJRU\�RI�VHHG��WKH�ODEHO�PXVW�FDUU\�RQ�RQH�RI�WKH�IDFHV�WKH�RI¿FLDO�VHDO�RI� WKH�DXWKRULW\�RU�VHUYLFH�UHVSRQVLEOH�IRU�VHHG�TXDOLW\�FRQWURO�DQG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ��7KLV�label must have the following minimum information:

x� Year of harvest (month, year)x� Name of the speciesx� Name of the varietyx� Germination percentagex� Percentage pure seedx� Percentage seed moisture contentx� Lot number x� Seed treatment chemical x� Country of originx� Seed net weight

The other face of the label should not have any writing on it.

6



7KH� ODEHO�PXVW�EH�¿[HG�RXWVLGH� WKH� VHHG�EDJ�DQG�D� VLPLODU� ODEHO�SXW� LQVLGH� WKH�EDJ��The material used for the labels must be strong enough to prevent damage in ordinary usage.

For post-harvest controls, a sample must be taken from each seed lot by the seed service LQ� FKDUJH� RI� VHHG� TXDOLW\� FRQWURO� DQG� FHUWL¿FDWLRQ� XVLQJ� SUHVFULEHG� SURFHGXUHV��7KLV�VDPSOH�LV�XVHG�E\�WKH�TXDOLW\�FRQWURO�DQG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DJHQF\�WR�FRQGXFW�D�JURZ�RXW�WHVW�(for conformity to variety characteristics), laboratory analyses and the remnant kept as UHIHUHQFH�VDPSOH�±��XVHG�IRU�YHUL¿FDWLRQ�LQ�WLPHV�RI�OLWLJDWLRQ��

Processing is conducted before marketing. It involves seed quality improvement after harvest. It is conducted in three phases:

x� &OHDQLQJ��JUDGLQJ�DQG�VRUWLQJ�x� Treatment with pesticides (e.g. insecticide, fungicides), etcx� Packaging and labeling.

During processing, seed samples are collected from various batches. These samples are analyzed in the laboratory to ascertain the following four main characteristics:

x� *HUPLQDWLRQ�UDWH�x� 6HHG�PRLVWXUH�FRQWHQW�x� )RUHLJQ�PDWWHUV�FRQWHQW�x� Varietal purity.

,I�DW�WKH�HQG�RI�WKH�DQDO\VHV��WKH�VHHG�LV�DFFHSWHG��WKHQ�WKH�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DJHQF\��GHOLYHUV�DQ�DGPLQLVWUDWLYH�FHUWL¿FDWH�DXWKHQWLFDWLQJ�DFFHSWDQFH�RI�WKH�VHHG�ORW�IRU�PDUNHWLQJ��,I�QRW��LW�LV�UHMHFWHG�DV�FHUWL¿HG�VHHG��

Seed commercialization is mostly in the domain of the private sector. In some instances this may be organized by public seed institutions. They buy the seed from contract farmers, process it and distribute it to farmers against cash payment or through a local ¿QDQFLDO�LQVWLWXWLRQ�LQ�D�IRUP�RI�IDUPLQJ�VHDVRQDO�FUHGLW��$FFHVV�WR�IDUPLQJ�VHDVRQ�FUHGLW�is only given upon the recommendation of seed services / organizations.

Organizing production activities

The conventional seed system begins with the supply of Breeder seed (G0) obtained from the mother lines held by the breeder (Figure 1).

The Breeder seed is then multiplied during three cropping seasons to produce Foundation seed (G1, G2 and G3). Off-season production is often conducted to fast-track the multiplication of the Foundation seed. In most countries, Foundation seed is produced by research, although the involvement of extension and NGOs under development projects is more and more noted at this level.

7



G3 Foundation seed is sold to contract farmers to produce G4 Registered seed and the consequently 1st, 2nd, and sometimes 3rd�&HUWL¿HG�VHHG��5��5��DQG�5��7KLV�SURGXFWLRQ�may be conducted under the direct supervision of trained personnel of the extension VHUYLFHV��RUJDQL]DWLRQV��1*2V��RU�WKH�SULYDWH�VHFWRU��4XDOLW\�FRQWURO�DQG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DFWLYLWLHV� DUH�� KRZHYHU�� FRQGXFWHG� E\� WKH� RI¿FLDOO\� GHVLJQDWHG� TXDOLW\� FRQWURO� DQG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DJHQF\��

It must be noted that various seed multiplication schemes exist with different numbers of generations ranging from 3 to 7. The advantage of the extended number of generations is that it is able to produce large quantities of seed at the end. The disadvantage is that LI�¿HOG�PRQLWRULQJ�LV�QRW�VWULFWO\�DGKHUHG�WR��LW�PD\�OHDG�WR�VHULRXV�YDULHW\�DGPL[WXUH�through exponential multiplication of off-type seeds that occur at the early stages.

Figure 1. Conventional seed system

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Year 6

Year 7

Year 8

Research

SEED

SERVICE

CONTRACT

FARMERS

G0

G1

G2

G3

G4

R1

R2

Ordinary paddy

8



Limitations of the conventional system and alternative strategies

In more or less all countries within the sub-region, seed services / organizations have shown their limitations in the early years of independence (low quantities of seed produced, high cost of quality seed). Subsidies were therefore used through development projects. Many causes were found to explain these failures. They include among others:

x� The centralized organization of the conventional seed system, which is not adapted WR�WKH�UHDOLWLHV�RI�WUDGLWLRQDO�ULFH�IDUPLQJ�V\VWHPV�

x� 6HHG�OHJLVODWLRQ�LV�QRW�DGDSWHG�WR�VPDOO�KROGHU�IDUPHUV¶�QHHGV�x� &RPSOH[�YDULHWDO�HYDOXDWLRQ�DQG�UHOHDVH�V\VWHPV�x� High cost of improved seed compared to farmers’ seed.

7R�DGGUHVV�WKLV��PDQ\�DOWHUQDWLYH�VWUDWHJLHV�ZHUH�GHYHORSHG�WR�¿QG�DSSURSULDWH�VROXWLRQV�to the low supply of quality seed. These include: support to development agencies and projects, the Statement of Quality Declared Seed, truthful labeling and Farmers’ Initiatives.

The main seed production stages of the conventional seed system

Breeder seedSeed or planting materials including the parental material “G0” directly controlled by originating or sponsored plant breeder of the breeding program or institution or seed, ZKLFK�LV�SURGXFHG�XQGHU�WKH�SHUVRQDO�VXSHUYLVLRQ�RI�D�TXDOL¿HG�SODQW�EUHHGHU��DQG�ZKLFK�provides the source for the initial and recurring increase of Foundation seed.

Foundation seed Seeds or planting materials produced from Breeder seed according to generally approved seed production standards and are intended for the production of Registered seed. They include G0, G1, G2, and G3.G1: First generation Foundation seed is produced by multiplying G0 seedG2: Second generation Foundation seed is produced by multiplying G1 seedG3: Third generation Foundation seed is produced by multiplying G2 seed

Registered seed Seeds or planting materials which result directly from Foundation seed G3 are named G4. They represent the transition generation between Foundation seed usually produced by UHVHDUFK�LQ�$IULFD�DQG�FRPPHUFLDO��&HUWL¿HG��VHHG�SURGXFHG�E\�FRQWUDFW�IDUPHUV�

&HUWL¿HG�VHHG�6HHGV�RU�SODQWLQJ�PDWHULDOV�ZKLFK�UHVXOW�GLUHFWO\�IURP�5HJLVWHUHG�VHHG�RU�&HUWL¿HG�VHHG�RI� D� YDULHW\� DQG� LQWHQGHG� IRU� WKH� SURGXFWLRQ� RI� RWKHU� JHQHUDWLRQV� RI� &HUWL¿HG� VHHG� RU�FURSV�EHLQJ�XVHG�IRU�SXUSRVHV�RWKHU�WKDQ�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ��7KH�¿UVW�JHQHUDWLRQ�UHVXOWLQJ�IURP�5HJLVWHUHG�VHHG�LV�NQRZQ�DV�¿UVW��st��JHQHUDWLRQ�&HUWL¿HG�VHHG��5��6XEVHTXHQW�generations are known as 2nd and 3rd�JHQHUDWLRQ�&HUWL¿HG�VHHG�UHVSHFWLYHO\�5��DQG�5��

9



Support from development agencies

This support is initiated in most cases under donor-funded development projects. This is a privileged area for NGOs. This support helps to introduce new varieties and to meet local demand for seed. Its impact is however limited over time by the fact that it has not been developed and implemented by institutions that organize seed production, seed commercialization and seed exchange, if any. No wonder, at the end of these development projects, the actions initiated are not sustained.

The most well known support forms are:

x� 7KH�SURPRWLRQ�RI�FRQWUDFWV�IRU�LPSURYHG�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ�x� 7KH�SLQ�SRLQW�LQMHFWLRQ�RI�)RXQGDWLRQ�VHHG�x� The mini-dosage promotion (the farmer who receives seed is bound to reimburse

GRXEOH�DIWHU�KDUYHVW��x� The rehabilitation of lost varieties.

Quality Declared Seed

Since 1993, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has been asking for softer seed legislation. It has been promoting the concept of Quality Declared Seed based on the accountability of a number of seed sellers or distributors known for their ability to process quality control operations.

The procedures to be observed mainly involve:

x� 7KH�HODERUDWLRQ�RI�D�OLVW�RI�WKH�FRQFHUQHG�YDULHWLHV��x� 7KH�UHJLVWUDWLRQ�RI�VHHG�SURGXFHUV�x� 7KH�PRQLWRULQJ�RI�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ�DFWLYLWLHV��DERXW��RI�FRYHUHG�DUHDV�x� Fair supervision of sales by the public sector.

Functions of the conventional seed system

Public institution functions: Programming and controlx� Programmingx� Legislation and controlsx� Trainingx� Production and maintenance of Breeder and Foundation seeds (G0, G1, G2, G3) x� Selection of seed producers and elaboration of production contracts x� Seed processingx� Organization of commercialization operations

Function of seed organizationsx� 3URGXFWLRQ�RI�&HUWL¿HG�VHHG��5��DQG�5��

10



7KLV�DSSURDFK�KHOSV�WKH�SULYDWH�VHFWRU�WR�EH�OHVV�LQÀXHQFHG�E\�WKH�IDLOXUHV�RI�WKH�QDWLRQDO�seed services / organizations and to have certain autonomy to conduct quality seed control operations. It is been successfully used in Guinea by the Agricultural Production and Inputs Commercialization Company (SPCIA), which was able to sell about 2000 tonnes of seed to Sierra Leone in 1999.

Truthful labeling

7KH� LQWHUQDO� ODEHOLQJ� V\VWHP� LQYROYHV� XQFHUWL¿HG� FRPPHUFLDO� VHHG�� 7KLV� PRGHO� LV�especially preferred for self-pollinating plants and vegetatively propagated plants.

Traditional indigenous seed system or Farmers’ Initiatives

Many farmers’ initiatives exist in the sub-region. These initiatives are in different forms (separated or connected). They mainly involve seed producers’ organizations, trading and mutual support groups.

Common cropping plots are more and more noted together with the empowerment of a number of farmers to produce seed on behalf of farmers’ groups or communities as against the involvement of group members in operations such as weeding and harvest.

Farmers’ initiatives are frequent in the Savannah and Sahel zones. In the Forest zone, WKH\�DUH�YHU\�VLWH�VSHFL¿F��7KH\�DUH�D�PHDQLQJIXO�DSSURDFK�ZKLFK�UHÀHFWV�WKH�GHVLUH�RI�WKH�IDUPHUV�WR�¿QG�ORFDO�VROXWLRQV�IRU�WKHLU�VHHG�SUREOHPV�

Farmers’ initiatives are not well known. They are barely studied by public institutions which call them “informal sector”. Meanwhile, according to the information provided by FAO in 1998 at the Abidjan Regional Meeting on Seed policies, more than 90% of the seeds available in the sub-region are produced by this sector. It is therefore desirable to evaluate it by taking into account its underlying socio-cultural and socio-economic values.

That is why ISRA and AfricaRice have developed a seed system integrating the conventional and traditional indigenous seed systems. This new system called community-based seed system mainly aims to help farmers to better meet their seed needs by: (i) Valuing more their know-how in seed production, (ii) Thoroughly knowing new varieties, (iii) Training in seed production and seed conservation techniques and (iv) Facilitating large information dissemination on seed requirements and seed availability.

Farmers’ initiatives

11



Community-Based Seed System

Organization and functioning of the system

The community-based seed system (CBSS) is a new approach which aims to foster the ownership of the main seed activities by farmers’ organizations and local village communities.

CBSS is used to help communities produce their own seed and sell the surpluses to needy clients. It essentially involves farmers’ associations and emerging small-scale private seed growers. Farmers are trained in crop management and seed production techniques, marketing and small-scale business management.

CBSS takes into account the performances and failures of various initiatives that were run in many countries within the sub-region and promotes the concept of “Acceptable Quality Seed” as a solution to lack of quality seed.

The community-based seed system integrates two complementary systems: the Centralized (conventional) Seed system and the Decentralized (traditional) Seed system.

The Centralized system is managed by public institutions. It is more oriented to the PDLQWHQDQFH� RI� %UHHGHU� VHHG�� WKH� FHUWL¿FDWLRQ� RI� )RXQGDWLRQ� VHHG�� DV� ZHOO� DV� WKH�management of a nationwide data base and provides leadership in a seed production program. This is the business of farmers’ organizations.

The Decentralized system aims to ensure the availability of Basic Seed and Acceptable Quality Seed.

In contrast to the centralized system in which the role of farmers’ organizations is limited to 1st, 2nd and 3rd reproductions (R1, R2 and R3), the CBSS system favors the involvement of farmers’ organizations and innovative farmers in many activities. The CBSS activities are:

x� Basic seed production practicesx� The use of Foundation seed productionx� Acceptable quality in seed productionx� Seed quality controlx� Seed processingx� Seed diffusion.

Foundation seed production in the meantime may be conducted by research or a designated organization. However, parastatal institutions and especially private companies are strongly invited to get involved in the production of Foundation seed.

12



,W� LV� LPSRUWDQW� WR�PHQWLRQ� WKDW�HYHQ�XQGHU�&%66�� VHHG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ� LV�obligatory for Foundation and when possible, for Basic seeds according to prescribed standards. These measures aim to guarantee good seed quality before it is ushered into a decentralized system fully managed by farmers.

Basic seed production is carried out by farmers’ organizations and innovative IDUPHUV� LGHQWL¿HG� IRU� WKHLU� G\QDPLVP� DQG� WKHLU� NQRZ�KRZ� IRU� WKH� SURGXFWLRQ� RI�TXDOLW\� VHHG�� %DVLF� VHHG� LV� QRW� DOZD\V� FHUWL¿HG�� KRZHYHU� LWV� SURGXFWLRQ�PXVW� EH�done under good conditions (fertilizer application, weeding when necessary, regular roguing, local processing, etc.) and supervision by senior extension agents trained in seed production.

Seed RI�$FFHSWDEOH�4XDOLW\�is accessed through the multiplication of Basic seed. It can be produced by any farmer, who wishes to do so. Practical advice has been developed to limit the occurrence of foreign matter and the decline of germination rate.

The main production stages of Community-based seed system

Breeder seedSeed or planting materials including the parental material “G0” directly controlled by originating or sponsored plant breeder of the breeding program or institution or seed, ZKLFK�LV�SURGXFHG�XQGHU�WKH�SHUVRQDO�VXSHUYLVLRQ�RI�D�TXDOL¿HG�SODQW�EUHHGHU��DQG�ZKLFK�provides the source for the initial and recurring increase of Foundation seed.

Foundation seedSeeds or planting materials produced from Breeder seed according to generally approved seed production standards, which are intended for the production of Registered seed. They include G1, G2, and sometimes G3. The integration of G3 class is important especially for crops with low seed multiplication rate such as groundnut.G1: First generation Foundation seed is produced by multiplying G0 seedG2: Second generation Foundation seed is produced by multiplying G1 seedG3: Third generation Foundation seed is produced by multiplying G2 seed

)RXQGDWLRQ�VHHG�PXVW�EH�FHUWL¿HG�

Basic Seed In this system, Basic seed refers to the 3rd or 4th generation of Foundation seed. Basic VHHG�LV�SURGXFHG�ZLWK�D�ORW�RI�FDUH�EXW�LV�QRW�DOZD\V�FHUWL¿HG�

Acceptable Quality Seed,W�LV�JRRG�TXDOLW\�VHHG�EXW�QRW�FHUWL¿HG��7KH�JHUPLQDWLRQ�UDWH�VKRXOG�EH�KLJKHU�WKDQ��and the physical variety purity more than 90%.

13



Processing is conducted after good seed drying and threshing. It involves good seed winnowing to remove impurities (plant debris, weed seeds, broken and shriveled seeds, and seeds of other crops and varieties). At the end of this operation, the seed is treated with a chemical or natural insecticide (biopesticide) in order to ensure good storage. If the seed is stored on panicles, seed processing is conducted soon before sowing.

6HHG�GLIIXVLRQ�occurs through traditional channels. These channels are very diverse. They EHQH¿W�IURP�WKH�VXSSRUW�RI�WKH�&%66�V\VWHP��ZKLFK�IDFLOLWDWHV�DFFHVV�WR�LQIRUPDWLRQ�RQ�stocks’ availability and farmers’ requirements.

Organizing Seed Production activities

Production activities (Figure 2) are as follows:

x� %UHHGHU�VHHG�PDLQWHQDQFH�DQG�)RXQGDWLRQ�VHHG�VXSSO\�x� %DVLF�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ�x� 3URGXFWLRQ�RI�$FFHSWDEOH�4XDOLW\�VHHG�

Foundation seed production includes G0 Breeder seed maintenance and the multiplication of Foundation seed G1 by using G0 and G2 by using G1 seed.

Foundation seed G2 is sold to seed producers located in the big producing rice zones. These producers multiply the G2 seed to obtain Basic seed. The name basic seed under CBSS does not have the same meaning as under the conventional seed system, because WKH�VHHG�LV�QRW�FHUWL¿HG�

7KH� ODFN� RI� FHUWL¿FDWLRQ� RI� %DVLF� VHHG� VKRXOG�� XQGHU� QR� FLUFXPVWDQFHV�� FDXVH� DQ\�decline of the seed quality. Training sessions, information delivery and awareness raising sessions are held to reinforce farmers’ capacity building in seed production, quality control and diffusion techniques at the village community level. However, for H[WHUQDO�WUDGH��WKH�VHUYLFHV�RI�WKH�RI¿FLDO�VHHG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DJHQF\�PXVW�EH�VRXJKW�WR�meet international standards.

Training is one of the major CBSS tools. It is intended to help farmers to better cater for themselves and to evolve from traditional agriculture to intensive agriculture. Basic VHHG� SURGXFHUV� EHQH¿W� IURP� UHJXODU� VXSSRUW� IURP� DJURQRPLVWV� RU� VHQLRU� WHFKQLFLDQV�whose mandate is to assist farmers in improving seed quality and to take advantage of existing trade opportunities in neighboring locations.

14



Production of $FFHSWDEOH�4XDOLW\�VHHG�is carried out by farmers living within the village FRPPXQLWLHV��-XVW�OLNH�WKH�EDVLF�VHHGV��DFFHSWDEOH�TXDOLW\�VHHGV�DUH�QRW�FHUWL¿HG��KRZHYHU�their production is closely monitored especially at the harvest and post-harvest phases.

Field rapid rural appraisals have shown that low germination rate and high variety admixtures are the main seed quality problems. These problems are monitored by farmers to keep them at acceptable levels, that is, above 80% for germination rate and above 90% for varietal purity.

0RQLWRULQJ� LV� FRQGXFWHG� LQ� FROODERUDWLRQ�ZLWK�¿HOG� WHFKQLFLDQV� WR� HQVXUH� JRRG� VHHG�maintenance. Every producer must be able to manage his nucleus seed for a period of DERXW�WKUHH�WR�¿YH�\HDUV�ZLWKRXW�DQ\�QHHG�WR�UHQHZ�LW�

Figure 2. Community-based seed system

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

G0

G1

G2

Basic seed

Research / Private sector

Extension

NGOs

Farmers’ Organizations

Innovative farmers and farmers’ organizations organize Foundation seed renewal, record requirements and facilitate production in collaboration with Senior technicians

Villages where seed is monitored by Innovative farmers and Farmers’ organizations in collaboration with ¿HOG�RI¿FHUV�IRU�about 3 - 5 years

Seed Service

Farmers’ Organizations

15



2Q�WKH�¿HOG�WUDLQLQJ�ZRUNVKRSV�DUH�RUJDQL]HG�IRU�IDUPHUV�WR�HQDEOH�WKHP�HQVXUH�JRRG�¿HOG�PDLQWHQDQFH�DQG�DFKLHYH�DFFHSWDEOH�VHHG�TXDOLW\�

It is important to highlight that the concept of quality should be promoted not only at the level of the producer but also at the level of end-users who must be well informed of the quality and the characteristics of the seed in which they are investing. In carrying RXW�DZDUHQHVV�FDPSDLJQV��VSHFL¿F�DWWHQWLRQ�PXVW�EH�SDLG�WR�WKLV�VXEMHFW�ZLWK�WKH�DLP�favor of creating local internal controls.

Advantages of the community-based seed system

In contrast to the conventional system, which determines the operations to be conducted upstream and downstream, CBSS is limited to facilitation. Most of its activities are conducted by farmers and their organizations, according to information provided and DFFRUGLQJ�WR�WKHLU�RZQ�SURGXFWLRQ�GHVLUHV��VHHG�IRU�VDOH�RU�VHOI�VXI¿FLHQF\�LQ�PHHWLQJ�local production needs).

The system relies on empowering farmers and their associations through: (i) capacity- VWUHQJWKHQLQJ� HQGHDYRUV�� LL�� UHJXODU� VXSSO\� RI� )RXQGDWLRQ� VHHG�� LLL�� LPSURYLQJ� WKH�ÀRZ�RI�LQIRUPDWLRQ�RQ�DYDLODEOH�VWRFNV��VHHGV�DQG�JUDLQ�VWRFNV��SULFHV��LQSXWV��ORFDWLRQV��HWF��LY��UHFRUGLQJ�ORFDO�LQGLJHQRXV�NQRZOHGJH�DQG��Y��SURPRWLQJ�SUHIHUUHG�SURGXFWLYH�varieties together with indigenous and additional knowledge that accompany them. The development of the CBSS is being strongly motivated by the fact that the private sector LV�RIWHQ�UHOXFWDQW�WR�SURGXFH�VHHG�RI�VHOI�SROOLQDWHG�FURSV��7KLV�LV�EHFDXVH�SUR¿W�PDUJLQV�may be small in these crops due to the ease for farmers to maintain genetic purity and consequently save their own seeds. CBSS is also designed to link traditional agriculture to the market.

For bulky seeds, such as rice and groundnut with low out-crossing and hence low genetic degradation, improvement in seed uptake should focus on the improvement in seed supply through the CBSS. This should go along with the reinforcement of the capacities of local communities. This will go a long way in helping to reduce transaction costs and bringing quality seeds closer to the farmer.

The information given below should help to improve the CBSS system with respect to certain activities that are conducted upstream:

x� Evaluation of new varieties, especially through the participatory varietal selection PHWKRGV�

x� 'HPRQVWUDWLRQV�DQG�RQ�IDUP�YDULHWDO�WHVWV�x� 9DULHW\�UHOHDVH�x� Information management on seed stocks and seed requirements.

16



The community-based seed system has many advantages that complement the conventional seed system. These advantages are as follows:

1. &%66�GRHV�QRW�UHTXLUH�D�KXJH�LQYHVWPHQW�LQ�KXPDQ��¿QDQFLDO�DQG�ORJLVWLFDO�PHDQV�since it is supported by internal village community dynamics.

2. CBSS favors collaboration between farmers, technicians and public sector partners WR�¿QG�DSSURSULDWH�VROXWLRQV�WKH�VHHG�VXSSO\�SUREOHPV��

3. Varieties are accessible to farmers quite early, on the average two to four years after its release.

4. By gaining early access to good varieties, farmers can rapidly improve their crop productivity and, consequently, their incomes.

5. Quality seed is directly available at the village communities and not only at seed producing and marketing centers.

6. Seed is easily made accessible to surrounding village communities through the traditional diffusion mechanisms.

7. &%66�JLYHV�RSWLRQV�WR�UHQHZ�QXFOHXV�VHHG�HYHU\�IRXU±¿YH�\HDUV�RU�ZKHQ�GHHPHG�necessary, particularly as new varieties become available or when seeds are lost through calamities.

8. CBSS favors the emergence of small-scale seed enterprises in village communities and attracts the establishment of related agri-business, such as fertilizer and pesticide businesses adapted to the realities of small-holder farmers (Annexes 4, 5 and 6).

9. CBSS encourages the promotion of traditional local and preferred improved cultivars by making them available to farmers. This approach tends to reduce the disappearance risks of traditional cultivars. It also aims to promote farmers’ awareness and appreciation of the value of traditional varieties.

Functions of the Community-based seed system

Functions of public institutions: facilitationx� Foundation seed production and maintenancex� )RXQGDWLRQ��VHHG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQx� Nationwide database managementx� On-farm evaluation and awareness raising workshops

Function of farmers’ organizationsx� Participatory varietal selectionx� Basic seed and Acceptable quality seed productionx� Seed stocks and requirements information supplyx� Local seed quality controlx� Seed diffusion

Module IICommunity-based seed system

implementation

18


Module II: Community-based seed system implementation

This module:

* Aims to facilitate the implementation of the community-based seed system

* Provides information on the tools and techniques needed to ensure an effective functioning of the community-based seed system

19



Objective

This module aims to facilitate the implementation of the community-based seed system. It provides information on the organizational instruments and techniques needed to ensure an effective functioning of the CBSS. It is therefore important to conduct a good LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ�RI�SURGXFWLRQ�FRQVWUDLQWV�DQG�RSSRUWXQLWLHV�

Rapid rural appraisal

5DSLG� UXUDO� DSSUDLVDO� LV� DQ� HI¿FLHQW� LQIRUPDWLRQ� JDWKHULQJ�� DQDO\VLV� DQG� H[FKDQJH�method. It helps to highlight quality seed supply constraints that farmers face and the solutions used. There are several rural appraisal methods. However this manual focuses RQO\�RQ�WKH�JOREDO�DQG�VSHFL¿F�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�PHWKRGV�

Global rural appraisal

A well conducted participatory rapid rural appraisal helps to:

x� ,GHQWLI\�WKH�FRQVWUDLQWV�IDFHG�DQG�WKH�RSSRUWXQLWLHV�SURYLGHG��

x� &RQGXFW�D�FRPPRQ�H[SORUDWLRQ�IRU�DSSURSULDWH�VROXWLRQV�

x� 6KDUH�NQRZOHGJH�

x� 6KDUH�UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV�ZKLFK�PHDQV�D�ORJLF�RI�VROLGDULW\�

x� Set up a value chain of the main stakeholders.

A permanent participatory diagnosis can be organized to regularly update knowledge DQG�LQIRUPDWLRQ�ÀRZ�IRU�DOO�GHYHORSPHQW�SDUWQHUV�

6SHFL¿F�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�GLDJQRVLV

$W� WKH� HQG� RI� WKH� JOREDO� UXUDO� DSSUDLVDO�� D� VSHFL¿F� SDUWLFLSDWRU\� DSSUDLVDO� FDQ� EH�RUJDQL]HG�LQ�RUGHU�WR�WKRURXJKO\�VWXG\�RQH�DVSHFW�RI�D�JLYHQ�SUREOHP�LQ�D�WDUJHW�JURXS��for example the problem involving indigenous rice seed conservation techniques within a community.

20



6SHFL¿F�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�DSSUDLVDO�GLIIHUV�IURP�JOREDO�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�DSSUDLVDO��ZKLFK�FRYHUV�general subjects and also involves multidisciplinary teams, as is often the case in writing development projects.

)XQFWLRQV�RI�WKH�VSHFL¿F�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�DSSUDLVDO

6SHFL¿F�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�DSSUDLVDO�KHOSV�WR�DGGUHVV�D�QXPEHU�RI�LVVXHV�LQFOXGLQJ�

1. Whether seed production is a major constraint to improved rice production. If yes, why?

2. Whether there were local solutions for this problem.�� If yes, what were those solutions?�� If no, how do farmers manage?

��&DQ�&%66�EH�DQ�HI¿FLHQW�DQG�D�VXVWDLQDEOH�VROXWLRQ� WKDW�FDQ�KHOS� IDUPHUV�DGGUHVV�these problems relating to the supply and quality of seed? If yes, which approach should be used at the village community and national levels?

Individual interview

21



Useful discussion themes to be tackled during a rural appraisal

This should involve discussion on themes that the technician must highlight. They will include: farming systems, seed access modes, farmers’ initiatives and socio-economic considerations.

Farming systems

Analyzing farming systems helps to draw closer to farmers’ realities. It is important to pay attention to the following characteristics:

x� &URSSLQJ�SUDFWLFHV�XVHG��ODERU��VHHGLQJ�PRGHV��ZHHGLQJ��

x� Organizing harvest and post-harvest activities (drying, threshing, winnowing, WUDQVSRUWDWLRQ��FRQVHUYDWLRQ��

x� 6RXUFHV�RI�WKH�ODERU�XVHG��IDPLO\�ODERU��PXWXDO�VXSSRUW�JURXSLQJV��H[WHUQDO�ODERU��

x� /DERU�SD\PHQW�PRGHV��LQ�NLQG��FDVK��

x� 7KH�YDULRXV�YDULHWLHV�DQG�WKHLU�RULJLQV�

x� 7KH�UHODWLYH�VLJQL¿FDQFH�RI�ORFDO�YDULHWLHV�FRPSDUHG�WR�LPSURYHG�YDULHWLHV�ZLWKLQ�households.

Seed access modes

Farmers have access to seed through: (1) Farmer-saved seed, (2) Commercial seed production and (3) Use of external channels. For each mode, the technician must try to collect maximum information on the ways used by farmers to access seed.

x� Farmer-saved seed��7KH�WHFKQLFLDQ�PXVW�¿QG�RXW�DERXW�WKH�ZD\�VHHG�LV�SURGXFHG��its advantages and drawbacks. He or she must also enquire about farmer seed requirements coverage and when necessary, about the alternative solutions used.

x� Commercial seed production. The technician must enquire about the inputs used:

�� &HUWL¿HG�DQG�)RXQGDWLRQ�VHHGV��SULFH��SXUFKDVLQJ�SODFH��

- fertilizers (which ones, price, purchasing place). If it is compost, he or she must VSHFLI\�KRZ�LW�LV�PDGH�DQG�WKH�NHHQQHVV�RI�IDUPHUV�IRU�LW�

- chemical insecticides (which ones, price, purchasing place) or natural pesticides �KRZ�LW�LV�PDGH��

- herbicides (which ones, price, purchasing place).

22



7KH�WHFKQLFLDQ�PXVW�DOVR�WDNH�FRPPHUFLDOL]DWLRQ�DVSHFWV�LQWR�DFFRXQW��VSHFL¿FDOO\�SRVVLEOH�VHHG�PDUNHWLQJ�GLI¿FXOWLHV�

x� 8VH�RI�YDULRXV�H[WHUQDO�FKDQQHOV. The technician must enquire about the channels used and their mode of operation. For example, if they involve loans, he or she must show interest in both seed acquisition mode and seed reimbursement modalities (cash, in kind, quantities). If they involve purchasing, it would be relevant to know the seed purchasing place, the price of a kilogram or local unit (bowl, pot, and calabash). The technician must also collect comments on prices and possible seed VXSSO\�DQG�PDUNHWLQJ�GLI¿FXOWLHV�

Main seed supply sources

Farmer-saved seed: This relates to seed collected by the farmer from his or her own harvest.

Donations: Small seed quantities are often given to relatives, in-laws and friends to help them acquire new varieties. In a number of communities, seed sales are banned by custom.

Loans:� 7KH\� UHSUHVHQW� D� UDWKHU� VLJQL¿FDQW� VRXUFH� RI� VHHG� VXSSO\�� 7KH\� DUH� UHDOL]HG�RQ� WKH�EDVLV�RI� WUXVW��7KH�EHQH¿FLDU\� IDUPHU� UHLPEXUVHV� WKH� VDPH�TXDQWLW\��7KHUH�DUH�times however when in a number of cases, a larger quantity of seed or cash payment is requested instead.

Exchanges: They are very frequent. Exchanges are made to get access to new varieties or to replace old ones. They are also made to pay for a job done.

Sales: Small quantities of grain (which may be byproducts) are often sold to local traders each time the farmer needs money.

These small quantities are collected and then resold in the local or weekly markets.

Seed movement over long distances is done through weekly markets and cooperatives, XQLRQV��GHYHORSPHQW�RI¿FHUV�DQG�WKH�SULYDWH�VHFWRU�

Main seed supply sources

Farmer-saved seed: This relates to seed collected by the farmer from his or her ownharvest.

Donations: Small seed quantities are often given to relatives, in-laws and friends tohelp them acquire new varieties. In a number of communities, seed sales are banned bycustom.

Loans:� 7KH\� UHSUHVHQW� D� UDWKHU� VLJQL¿FDQW� VRXUFH� RI� VHHG� VXSSO\�� 7KH\� DUH� UHDOL]HG�RQ� WKH�EDVLV�RI� WUXVW��7KH�EHQH¿FLDU\� IDUPHU� UHLPEXUVHV� WKH� VDPH�TXDQWLW\��7KHUH�DUHtimes however when in a number of cases, a larger quantity of seed or cash payment isrequested instead.

Exchanges: They are very frequent. Exchanges are made to get access to new varietiesor to replace old ones. They are also made to pay for a job done.

Sales: Small quantities of grain (which may be byproducts) are often sold to local traders each time the farmer needs money.

These small quantities are collected and then resold in the local or weekly markets.

Seed movement over long distances is done through weekly markets and cooperatives, XQLRQV��GHYHORSPHQW�RI¿FHUV�DQG�WKH�SULYDWH�VHFWRU�

23



Farmers’ initiatives

The technician must analyze local initiatives (past and current) in seed production and seed distribution/marketing. It is particularly important to know:

x� The objectives of these initiatives (meeting farmers’ seed and marketing require-PHQWV�RU�ERWK��

x� 0RGH�RI�RSHUDWLRQ�

x� The background of the initiatives. If in the past, farmers collaborated with a number of Government services / organizations, Non-Government Organizations or seed projects, specify the advantages and disadvantages of that collaboration. If they were setbacks, how can they be explained and what are the solutions that were proposed to address them?

Socio-cultural conditions

Taking social realities into account is the basis of the community-based seed system. The most critical factors are the land tenure status and gender issues.

Analyzing land tenure status helps to understand the ways used to access land. Ownership rights to land are a rather complex phenomenon. Land generally belongs to the founding families of villages. However, with inter-cultural marriages coupled with different inheritance systems, land can belong to people who are foreigners in the village.

Land can be lent, leased or seasonally contracted for use or simply donated.

Depending on these arrangements, the farmer can make a long or short term investment in the land use.

A farmer explaining land tenure status during rural appraisal

24



Socio-cultural analysis clearly distinguishes man and woman roles in carrying RXW� IDUP� DFWLYLWLHV�� 7KLV� SDUWLWLRQ� KHOSV� WR� HQVXUH� JUHDWHU� HI¿FLHQF\� LQ� VHHG� V\VWHP�LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ��VSHFL¿FDOO\�LQ�VHHG�PDQDJHPHQW�DFWLYLWLHV�IRU�IDUPLQJ��FRPPHUFLDO�RU�cultural purposes.

Man or woman’s knowledge varies according to their role within the society and whether seed is meant for self-use or for commercial purpose.

In traditional farming systems, women play a leading role in rice production. They are basically the local labor for manual weeding, harvesting, drying, threshing and winnowing. Men especially contribute in land clearing and land plowing activities.

Women also take care of germplasm management and play an important role in the choice of varieties, depending on the type of soils and production objectives. They KDYH�YDOXDEOH�NQRZOHGJH�LQ�FURS�JHQHWLF�GLYHUVLW\�DQG�VSHFL¿F�FKDUDFWHULVWLFV��VXFK�DV�dormancy and storability. Women are excellent managers and have very good knowledge of seed constraints and opportunities, and preference for local and improved varieties.

Women represent a good source of information on indigenous knowledge in seed production and conservation, as well as traditional channels of diffusion. Understanding WKHVH�HOHPHQWV�LV�IXQGDPHQWDO�IRU�DQ�HI¿FLHQW�LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ�RI�&%66�

Institutional aspects

Community-based seed system is a new model. Its implementation requires the development of a nationwide strategy to optimize the efforts of stakeholders in the different village communities involved.

In implementing the system, it would therefore be recommended to hold a launching workshop, at the end of which a national observatory should be established. A national committee�FDQ�WKHQ�EH�HVWDEOLVKHG�ODWHU��+RZHYHU��GXH�WR�LWV�VLJQL¿FDQFH�LQ�the organizational processes for variety releases and the functioning of the seed system, WKH�QDWLRQDO�FRPPLWWHH�ZLOO�QHHG�DQ�RI¿FLDO�HQGRUVHPHQW�RI�WKH�UHOHYDQW�DXWKRULWLHV�

Establishing an observatory

The observatory can be set up during the CBSS start-up workshop. The observatory has the main mandate to gather and disseminate information on seed availabilities and seed requirements stated by farmers per variety and location. This information is critical because it helps the concerned services / organizations to know the quantities of Foundation seed to produce to meet the requirements of the village communities. In principle, three resource-persons coming from research, extension and the private sector are enough to run the national observatory. The database can be developed with a simple

25



software like MS Excel, Quattro Pro, MS Access or with a geographical information system (GIS).

Establishing a national committee

Developing a global strategy for an effective implementation of the community-based seed system requires partners’ commitment through National Committees for the Promotion of the community-based seed system (NCP-CBSS). These committees can have memberships of 10 persons including:

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV�RI�IDUPHUV¶�RUJDQL]DWLRQV�

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV�RI�LQQRYDWLYH�IDUPHUV�

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYH�RI�WKH�TXDOLW\�FRQWURO�DQG�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�DJHQF\

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYH�RI�WKH�SULYDWH�VHFWRU�

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYH�RI�1*2V�

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYH�RI�QDWLRQDO�UHVHDUFK�LQVWLWXWLRQV�

x� ��UHSUHVHQWDWLYH�RI�H[WHQVLRQ�LQVWLWXWLRQV�

x� 1 representative of the ministry of agriculture (extension).

The high representation of farmers (four members over 10) aims to help the NCP-CBSS to take more care of farmers’ concerns.

It is also highly recommended that a farmer assumes the chairmanship of the committee. Representatives of national research and extension institutions on the committee are responsible for supplying and extending quality Foundation seed and provide technical DGYLFH�IRU�WKH�VFKHPH��7KH\�PXVW�EH�VHOHFWHG�DPRQJ�RI¿FHUV�ZLWK�D�JRRG�FRPPDQG�RI�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�UHVHDUFK�WRROV�DQG�LQGLJHQRXV�NQRZOHGJH�SURPRWLRQ��7KHVH�RI¿FHUV�PXVW�EH�facilitators, that is to say good seed technicians but endowed with good communication skills to effectively interact with farmers.

In countries where there are national variety release and registration committee, there may be no need to set up a NCP-CBSS. It must however be streamlined to give more responsibilities to farmers in the variety release process. In fact, it is not an overstatement to stress that in most countries within the sub-region, national variety release and registration committees are apparently non-existent.

26



For countries where variety release and registration principles are not yet in force, establishing an NCP-CBSS could be a great contribution.

x� Members of the observatory are full members of the national seed committee.

x� A farmer must be a full member of the NCP-CBSS. He must play a leading role in the variety release process.

x� The NCP-CBSS facilitates the implementation of the seed system and manages ¿HOG�DFWLYLWLHV�WKURXJK�WKH�QDWLRQDO�REVHUYDWRU\��

5HGH¿QLQJ�VHHG�OHJLVODWLRQ�DQG�UHJXODWLRQV

The national variety release and registration committee is regulated by national seed legislation and regulations.

Seed legislation and regulations are the foundation on which a nationwide seed system is built. It streamlines and organizes seed actions and at the same time fosters the control of non authorized seed introductions. Its main objectives are to:

x� Protect agriculture in the countries against the introduction of foreign pests (insects, GLVHDVHV�DQG�ZHHGV��

x� (QVXUH�WKDW�IDUPHUV�KDYH�TXDOLW\�VHHG�WKURXJK�FHUWL¿FDWLRQ�

x� Protect breeders’ exclusive rights on their creativity, who could in return obtain royalties.

,Q�SUDFWLFH��VHHG�OHJLVODWLRQ�KDV�EHHQ�HI¿FLHQW�RQO\�LQ�WKH�HDUO\�\HDUV�RI�LQGHSHQGHQFH�ZKHQ�WKH�FRXQWULHV�KDG�HQRXJK�KXPDQ�DQG�¿QDQFLDO�UHVRXUFHV�WR�HQVXUH�URXWLQH�FRQWUROV��0RUH�VSHFL¿FDOO\�VLQFH�WKH�EHJLQQLQJ�RI�VWUXFWXUDO�DGMXVWPHQW��WKH�VHHG�VHFWRU�KDV�EHHQ�experiencing hardship. Local initiatives are of course made but they are not enough to meet the multiple seed demands. Moreover, seed legislation without adequate means, became a stumbling block to the promotion of new initiatives. It is therefore time to thoroughly review it and to adapt it to current realities by integrating village community requirements and those coming from the private sector.

In this regard, it is highly desirable for variety release and registration procedures to take farmers’ views into account. These views must be dominant in the case of rice. Therefore, the national variety release committee should take measures to initiate the release of any variety that has been tested and which elicits a high demand for seed from farmers.

27



Organizational aspects at village community level

Organizational aspects involve traditional local variety management and the reinforcement of the seed value chain at the village community level.

Traditional local variety management

As pointed out above, the community-based seed system takes local varieties into account. These varieties are maintained by farmers through a dynamic plant breeding process. It is therefore important to involve a number of farmers and traditional chiefs in the management of the nucleus seeds of traditional local varieties in addition to the collections maintained at research stations. This can be done by acknowledging farmers’ role in the development and maintenance of this type of germplasm. Entering into seed production contracts with farmers, who request it, could be an alternative arrangement.

Local varieties

It is important to note that homogeneity and stability problems occur frequently in traditional local varieties. National agricultural research programs may not always have the facilities and commitment to manage these varieties. In most cases, they may not conduct any research work in plant genetic resources and are therefore interested only in improved varieties.

This notwithstanding, national programs are encouraged to integrate traditional local varieties in their crop improvement and seed multiplication strategies. They could VSHFL¿FDOO\�RUJDQL]H�FROOHFWLRQ�PLVVLRQV�RI�ORFDO�DQG�WUDGLWLRQDO�FXOWLYDUV�WR�PXOWLSO\��conserve and make them available to farmers. They could also refer to international agricultural research institutions like AfricaRice to access a number of elite materials.

Integrating local varieties into the national seed system is so important because it helps WR�DGGUHVV� WKH�SHUHQQLDO� ORFDO�FXOWLYDU� UHKDELOLWDWLRQ�SUREOHP�DIWHU�FRQÀLFWV� �FDVHV�RI�Sierra Leone and Liberia) or natural disasters (drought in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1970s).

28



Reinforcement of the seed value chain at the village community level

Innovative farmers and farmers’ organizations are the main driving forces behind the community-based seed system. Unlike the conventional system, the community-based system integrates the decentralized system and its operation mode. Existing seed channels in village communities are very dynamic. They are generally based on social relations or traditional seed trading systems. They play a critical role in seed dissemination in village communities and can therefore ensure the sustainability of the new system.

Innovative farmers and farmers’ organizations involved in CBSS must work to reinforce local seed diffusion networks.

Reinforcing local seed networks will in the medium term favor a gradual establishment of rural seed enterprises. They have a double advantage of facilitating on one hand the close proximity of seed to farmers and on the other hand, an easy adaptation of the traditional variety dissemination systems, which is basically based on donations, loans, exchanges and purchase of small seed quantities.

The contribution of innovative farmers and farmers’ organizations is critical for XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�WUDGLWLRQDO�SUDFWLFHV�LQ�VHHG�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�GLIIXVLRQ��PRUH�VSHFL¿FDOO\�the aspects involving: (1) practices, rituals and customs involving seeds, (2) traditional production and conservation techniques and (3) local dissemination channels of varieties.

Three major tools are used to reinforce indigenous seed diffusion channels: information, awareness raising and inter-group meetings.

Information

Information is a determining factor that helps the informal channels of seed dissemination and trade to be more dynamic.

There are many indigenous networks for information dissemination. They include: informal meetings, religious ceremonies (naming ceremonies, funerals, marriages) and local weekly markets. They play an important role in information dissemination from one village community to the other and over long distances.

Awareness raising

Awareness raising favors the promotion of quality seed. It is conducted through the PDVV�PHGLD��QHZVSDSHUV��GRFXPHQWDU\�¿OPV��UDGLR��DQG�WHOHYLVLRQ��DQG�LQ�WKH�IRUP�RI�posters on various themes involving for example:

x� �$FFHSWDEOH�TXDOLW\�VHHG�SURGXFWLRQ�DQG�XWLOL]DWLRQ�

29



x� 1HZ�ORZ�FRVW�VHHG�FRQVHUYDWLRQ�PHWKRGV�x� 8VH�RI�ELRSHVWLFLGHV�LQ�VHHG�SURWHFWLRQ�DJDLQVW�SHVWV�x� etc.

Awareness raising campaigns are also an opportunity to regularly inform on seed availability, storage locations and proposed prices.

Inter-groups meetings

These favor exchanges between farmers on problems of common interests. They can offer opportunities for initiating collaborative activities between village communities.

During these meetings, information is given on new varieties and their characteristics, seed storage locations, quantities available and prices.

Reinforcing farmers’ capacity in seed production

Reinforcing farmers’ capacity in seed production critically requires training. Training LV�DQ�H[FHOOHQW�SHGDJRJLF�WRRO�IRU�LPSOHPHQWLQJ�HI¿FLHQWO\�WKH�FRPPXQLW\�EDVHG�VHHG�system. It aims to acquaint farmers with the main tools needed to easily organize seed activities in village communities and to consolidate regional and nationwide achievements.

Training is conducted in three stages:

x� /DXQFKLQJ�ZRUNVKRSV�x� )LHOG�GHPRQVWUDWLRQV�¿HOG�VFKRROV�DQG�¿HOG�GD\Vx� Awareness raising and evaluation workshops.

CBSS start-up workshops

CBSS launching workshops are held at national and regional levels before initiating WKH�FRPPXQLW\�EDVHG�VHHG�V\VWHP��7KH\�DUH�DOZD\V�KHOG�DIWHU�VSHFL¿F�UXUDO�DSSUDLVDOV��ZKLFK�DUH�FRQGXFWHG�LQ�WKH�PDLQ�ULFH�SURGXFLQJ�]RQHV��$V�HDUOLHU�SRLQWHG�RXW��VSHFL¿F�appraisals help not only to know if quality seed non-availability is a major constraint to production, but also to delve into local seed management problems. An example of discussion themes is included in annex 1. It aims to adapt CBSS to local realities to help interested farmers to meet seed requirements and end-users’ demands.

Launching workshops are an opportunity to round up local initiatives and to streamline the new seed system by sharing responsibilities between Foundation seed producers, Basic seed producers and producers of seed of Acceptable Quality.

30



National level start-up workshops must be differentiated from regional, zones and village FRPPXQLW\�OHYHO�VWDUW�XS�ZRUNVKRSV��,I�LQ�WKH�¿UVW�FDVH��WKH�QDWLRQDO�FRPPLWWHH�LV�WKH�workshop convener, in the second case, innovative farmers and farmers’ organizations DUH�WKH�PDLQ�RSHUDWRUV��7KH\�ZRUN�LQ�FROODERUDWLRQ�ZLWK�¿HOG�RI¿FHUV�RQ�SUDFWLFDO�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRS�SODQQLQJ�DQG�KRVWLQJ��DV�ZHOO�DV�V\VWHP�HI¿FLHQF\�HYDOXDWLRQ�RQ�WKH�JURXQG��It behooves them to ensure seed quality maintenance by conducting germination and varietal purity tests to decide, where necessary, about nucleus seed renewal.

The start-up workshop aims to train the main development operators in community-based seed system implementation and operation.

The scheme below gives indications on possible themes to be tackled: seed systems and farmers’ initiatives (adding value to farmers’ practices), basic seed and acceptable quality seed production techniques, nucleus seed maintenance, seed processing and VWRUDJH�� HFRQRPLF� DVSHFWV� RI� SURGXFWLRQ�� RQ�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRS� RUJDQL]DWLRQ�� DZDUHQHVV�creation and evaluation workshop organization, assistance for the creation of rural seed enterprises, national committee management, national observatory management on available seed stocks and farmers’ requirements, seed legislation and variety release.

2Q�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRSV

2Q�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRSV�DUH�KHOG�LQ�WKH�RSHQ�¿HOG�GXULQJ�WKH�FURSSLQJ�VHDVRQ��7KH\�DLP�WR�favor experience exchanges between farmers on working methods used to improve the quality of their seed.

2Q�¿HOG� ZRUNVKRSV� DUH� D� JRRG� RSSRUWXQLW\� IRU� IDUPHUV� WR� YLVLW� )RXQGDWLRQ� VHHG�production sites, demonstrations and varietal tests underway in surrounding locations. They are privileged times when farmers mainly discuss production technique problems in seed quality improvement:

x� Cultural practices (seedling modes, weeding, chemical and organic fertili-]HU�XVH��HWF��

x� Protection methods against pests (Trap laying, chemical and natural pesticide XVH��HWF��

x� Seed quality improvement techniques (isolation, roguing, seed selection and processing, stocks management, etc.). 2Q�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRSV

31



2Q�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRSV�DUH�RUJDQL]HG�E\�WHFKQLFLDQV��EXW�WKH\�DUH�OHG�E\�IDUPHUV��7ZR�RQ�¿HOG�ZRUNVKRSV�DUH�HQRXJK�IRU�HDFK�FURSSLQJ�VHDVRQ�

Awareness raising and evaluation workshops

Awareness raising and evaluation workshops can be conducted immediately after rice harvest or a little later. They aim to achieve two main objectives: achievements evaluation in seed production techniques and farmers’ awareness creation on organizational and trade aspects.

,Q�WKH�¿UVW�FDVH��WKH�HPSKDVLV�LV�ODLG�RQ�YDULHWDO�SXULW\�PDLQWHQDQFH��D�JRRG�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�of post-harvest activities and germination tests.

In the second case, discussions are mainly focused on the means to: (1) strengthen farmers’ organizational capacity, (2) professionalization and specialization of a number of them and (3) information management in village seed communities.

Awareness creation on organizational aspects also aims to establish a value chain seed sector at the village community levels. This is very important and could help to organize seed commercial operations. The existence of local seed systems could in the future help to pave the way for the use of mobile seed processing units. These units are much more adapted to the realities of smallholder farmers than current industrial complexes being used.

During the awareness raising and evaluation workshops, the technicians must be able to pass on information on stocks available, seed quality in their locations, the various SULFHV�SURSRVHG�DQG�IDUPHU�VHHG�UHTXLUHPHQWV�IRU�WKH�XSFRPLQJ�VHDVRQ��)LHOG�RI¿FHUV�must therefore have the required information on the respective village communities to feed into the national and regional database.

Module IIIRole of the main stakeholders of the community-based seed

system

34


Module III: Role of the main stakeholders of the community-based seed system

This module:

* &ODUL¿HV�WKH�UROH�RI�HYHU\�partner with the aim to facilitate an effective implementation of organizational and technical CBSS activities

35



Objective

7KH� PRGXOH� FODUL¿HV� WKH� UROH� RI� HYHU\� SDUWQHU� ZLWK� WKH� DLP� RI� IDFLOLWDWLQJ� D� JRRG�implementation of organizational and technical CBSS activities.

The main partners of the system are: Farmers’ organizations, Foundation seed producers, $FFHSWDEOH� 4XDOLW\� VHHG� SURGXFHUV�� ¿HOG� RI¿FHUV�� VHQLRU� WHFKQLFLDQV� DQG� KHDGV� RI�national seed services.

Farmers’ organizations

Smallholder farmers are organizing themselves more and more into producer groupings with the objective to better address common problems, including seed.

These farmer groupings mainly have the mandate to:

x� Organize and monitor an effective functioning of CBSS at the village community OHYHO�

x� Control seed quality and make recommendations on the need to or not to renew QXFOHXV�VHHGV�

x� Facilitate farmers’ access to agricultural season credits (running funds, agricultural LQSXWV��

x� Facilitate farmers’ access to information on seed stocks and other products DYDLODEOH�

x� 6XSSRUW�IDUPHUV�LQ�VHHG�PDUNHWLQJ�

x� Ensure the promotion of Acceptable Quality seed.

Basic seed producers

Their main task is to:

x� Produce Foundation seed for producers residing in the village communities of their UHJLRQ�RU�]RQH��

x� Provide farmers, farmers’ organizations and senior technicians with the required information on available seed (quantities, prices, storage locations).

&RQVLGHULQJ�WKH�VLJQL¿FDQW�TXDQWLWLHV�RI�VHHG�QHHGHG�WR�UXQ�&%66��WKH�LQYROYHPHQW�RI�innovative farmers in Foundation seed production must be encouraged.

Innovative farmers are farmers who are open to new technologies. They agree to invest in rice production inputs (fertilizer, herbicides, and insecticides). They therefore represent an important link for facilitating quality seed availability in the various locations.

36



Acceptable Quality seed producers

They have the mandate to mainly:

x� Produce Acceptable Quality seed for farmers in their village communities and ZKHUH�QHFHVVDU\��IRU�VXUURXQGLQJ�ORFDWLRQV�

x� 3URYLGH� LQQRYDWLYH� IDUPHUV�� IDUPHUV¶� RUJDQL]DWLRQV� DQG� ¿HOG� RI¿FHUV� ZLWK� WKH�required information on available seed (quantities available, prices, storage places, etc.).

Training farmers

37



)LHOG�RI¿FHUV��H[WHQVLRQ��SULYDWH�VHFWRU��1*2V�

They have the mandate to:

x� (QVXUH�WKH�PRQLWRULQJ�RI�IDUPHUV¶�DFWLYLWLHV�DQG�SURYLGH�DGYLFH�ZKHUH�QHFHVVDU\�

x� Provide information on seed availability in their locations (seed categories, TXDQWLWLHV��TXDOLW\��SULFHV��

x� Participate, at farmers’ request, in seed quality evaluation (varietal purity, JHUPLQDWLRQ�UDWH��

x� Communicate their observations to farmers and senior technicians.

Senior technicians (extension, private sector, NGOs)

Their main mandate is to:

x� Facilitate CBSS functioning in their operational zones. They participate in FRQGXFWLQJ�WUDLQLQJ�ZRUNVKRSV�IRU�IDUPHUV�DQG�¿HOG�RI¿FHUV�WKURXJK�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�PHWKRGV�

x� )DFLOLWDWH�WKH�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�RI�PRQLWRULQJ�DQG�HYDOXDWLRQ�PLVVLRQV�

x� Collect information on variety trends in the regions, seed quantities available and their quality, locations where they are conserved, seed requirements and prices SURSRVHG�E\�IDUPHUV�

x� Facilitate new variety adoption study in their operational zones.

National leaders (agriculture, research, extension, private sector)

Their mission is to:

x� �*LYH�&%66�OHJLWLPDF\��

x� �)DFLOLWDWH�HVWDEOLVKPHQW�RI�WKH�QDWLRQDO�REVHUYDWRU\�DQG�13&�&%66��

x� �)DFLOLWDWH�WKH�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�RI�WKH�LQLWLDO�WUDLQLQJ�FRXUVH�IRU�WKH�VWDII�LQYROYHG��

x� �3OD\�D�OHDGLQJ�UROH�LQ�UDLVLQJ�WKH�DZDUHQHVV�DPRQJ�PDMRU�VWDNHKROGHUV��

x� �3URYLGH�ORJLVWLFDO�DQG�DGPLQLVWUDWLYH�VXSSRUW�WR�WKH�VHHG�SURJUDP��

x� Facilitate new variety adoption study at the national level.

38



$�SURGXFHU�VDWLV¿HG�ZLWK�KLV�KDUYHVW

Module IVInteractions between varietal

testing, variety release and seed production activities

40


Module IV: Interactions between varietal testing, variety release and seed production activities

This module:

* Aims to foster better interactions between various varietal testing and new variety release on one hand, and seed multiplication and diffusion activities on the other hand

41



Objective

The module aims to foster better interactions between varietal testing and new variety release on one hand, and seed multiplication and diffusion activities on the other hand. It proposes a new approach to varietal testing, taking into account farmers’ assessments DQG�DGYRFDF\�IRU�D�UHGH¿QLWLRQ�RI�YDULHW\�UHOHDVH�SURFHGXUHV��

Varietal testing

Traditional rice farmers grow a diverse range of traditional local cultivars every year, which helps them to mitigate the risks associated with a poor cropping season. When natural disasters occur, therefore (for example drought or pests infestation), farmers are always able to harvest something. It is therefore necessary, whenever this is possible to facilitate access to information for them on the existence of new improved varieties to broaden their selection range. This can be achieved through varietal trials, on-farm tests, demonstrations or participatory varietal selection, commonly known as PVS.

In this document, only participatory varietal selection is covered. Varietal trials, on-farm WHVWV�DQG�GHPRQVWUDWLRQV�DUH�RIWHQ�ZHOO�NQRZQ�E\�DJURQRPLVWV�DQG�¿HOG�WHFKQLFLDQV��,W�was therefore not deemed necessary to develop them here.

Participatory varietal selection is a dynamic experimentation tool that helps to value farmers’ assessments. For its implementation, a PVS test is held in each agro-ecological zone. The number of varieties used depends on the number of varieties available and the number requested through information provided by farmers on the type of genetic material they prefer with regard to the cycle, height, and grain quality, biotic and abiotic constraints. The PVS test includes end-of-selection breeding lines, released varieties and traditional local varieties. The presence of local varieties helps farmers to make comparisons with their own checks.

For end-of-selection breeding lines and new introductions, susceptibility analyses to the main insects and diseases must be conducted in a laboratory. These analyses can involve, depending on the type of rice farming system: blast, leaf blight, yellow mottle virus, gall midge, etc.

Participatory varietal selection helps farmers to identify promising varieties for immediate use and immediate diffusion to their neighbors. In fact, participatory varietal selection does not aim to scale-up the variety diffusion process. This is rather the purpose of national seed programs. However, PVS fosters varietal diversity, which is very important in traditional agriculture. It also provides useful information to research DQG�H[WHQVLRQ�RQ�DVVHVVPHQWV�GRQH�E\�IDUPHUV��7KHVH�DVVHVVPHQWV�LQÀXHQFH�WKH�YDULHW\�VHOHFWLRQ� SURFHVV� WR� EH� LQFOXGHG� LQ� GHPRQVWUDWLRQV� DQG� FRQ¿UPDWLRQ� WULDOV� IRU� DQ\�release.

42



There are two types of participatory varietal selections: PVS-Research and PVS-([WHQVLRQ��7KH�¿UVW�W\SH�LV�OHG�E\�UHVHDUFK�DQG�LQYROYHV�IHZ�IDUPHUV�LQ�D�JLYHQ�ORFDWLRQ��Conversely, the second type is led by extension and involves a high number of farmers in many locations in a given agro- ecological zone. Combining both experimentation types allows a better utilization of farmers’ assessments in the selection process of varieties for an extended diffusion.

Community-based seed system uses the information collected at the end of PVS-Research and PVS-Extension. If there is a high demand for a number of varieties, the release process is immediately initiated to meet the seed requirements.

PVS-Research

It is conducted in three stages:

Year 1: Farmers select varieties in which they are interested in a garden of varieties according to their own assessments (general outlook, adaptation to low external inputs conditions, tolerance to diseases, grain shape, preference for food, etc.).

Year 2: Farmers sow varieties in a simple design that can help them make relevant comparisons. At harvest, sensory tests are conducted by research and extension agents to collect farmers’ impressions about varieties they would like to sow in the following cropping season and about their seed requirements.

Year 3: On the eve of Year 3 season, the seed of selected varieties is sold to farmers. This action is of course symbolic, but it provides information on the interest of farmers in a given variety.

The participatory selection program then ends. Other trials can be initiated in the same location or elsewhere if farmers ask for them.

PVS-Research

It is conducted in three stages:

Year 1: Farmers select varieties in which they are interested in a garden of varieties according to their own assessments (general outlook, adaptation to low external inputs conditions, tolerance to diseases, grain shape, preference for food, etc.).

Year 2: Farmers sow varieties in a simple design that can help them make relevantcomparisons. At harvest, sensory tests are conducted by research and extension agents to collect farmers’ impressions about varieties they would like to sow in the following cropping season and about their seed requirements.

Year 3: On the eve of Year 3 season, the seed of selected varieties is sold to farmers. This action is of course symbolic, but it provides information on the interest of farmers ina given variety.

The participatory selection program then ends. Other trials can be initiated in the samelocation or elsewhere if farmers ask for them.

43



Figure 3. Comparing classical and participatory experimentation diagram

PVS-Extension

It is conducted during two cropping seasons by farmers under the responsibility of extension.

Farmers play three major functions:�� 7KH\�SHUVRQDOO\�FRQGXFW�DOO�FXOWXUDO�RSHUDWLRQV�� 7KH\�HYDOXDWH�YDULHWDO�WHVWLQJ�UHVXOWV�� 7KH\�GLVVHPLQDWH�YDULHWDO�WHVWLQJ�UHVXOWV�WR�RWKHU�IDUPHUV�

If at the end of the PVS-Extension program, a number of varieties are requested by farmers, a fact sheet rounding up all results is then developed. This fact sheet, which captures the agronomic, technological, and cooking performances of varieties, is submitted to the national variety release and registration committee to be studied and checked.

PVS-Extension

It is conducted during two cropping seasons by farmers under the responsibility of extension.

Farmers play three major functions:� 7KH\�SHUVRQDOO\�FRQGXFW�DOO�FXOWXUDO�RSHUDWLRQV�� 7KH\�HYDOXDWH�YDULHWDO�WHVWLQJ�UHVXOWV�� 7KH\�GLVVHPLQDWH�YDULHWDO�WHVWLQJ�UHVXOWV�WR�RWKHU�IDUPHUV�

If at the end of the PVS-Extension program, a number of varieties are requested by farmers,a fact sheet rounding up all results is then developed. This fact sheet, which captures the agronomic, technological, and cooking performances of varieties, is submitted to the national variety release and registration committee to be studied and checked.

Figure 3 compares the processes used in the conventional experimentation and the participatory process.

Year 1

Year 2

Years 3–5

Year 6

Years 7–8

Years 9–10

PVS-Research

PVS-Extension

Participatory approach

Observation Nursery

Observation Yield Trials

Repeated Yield Trials

Classical approach

Observation Nursery

Observation Yield Trials

Repeated Yield Trials

Elite Trials

Coordinated Regional Yield Trials

On-farm Variety Tests

44



In the classical approach, most trials are conducted at on-station (primary, secondary, and key) sites. Farmers are only involved in testing new varieties in the ninth year. By contrast, in the participatory approach, farmers are involved in the selection of varieties from the sixth year.

Releasing varieties

5HOHDVLQJ� LV� DQ� RI¿FLDO� SURFHVV� RI� HVWDEOLVKLQJ� WKH� VLQJXODULW\� RI� D� YDULHW\� ZKLFK��together with its well known agronomic and technological characteristics, must meet distinctness, uniformity and stability criteria.

5HOHDVLQJ� LQFOXGHV�� FRQ¿UPDWLRQ� WULDOV� DQG� GHPRQVWUDWLRQV�� &RQ¿UPDWLRQ� WULDOV� DUH�conducted on-station and aim to check the characteristics of varieties provided by research. Demonstrations however aim to help farmers, who did not host varietal tests to know the potential of the new variety.

Releasing is generally conducted by the national variety release and registration FRPPLWWHH� DIWHU� WZR� \HDUV� RI� FRQ¿UPDWLRQ� DQG� GHPRQVWUDWLRQ� WULDOV�� 7KH� QDWLRQDO�committee makes recommendations to the relevant institution, generally the ministry of DJULFXOWXUH�WR�UHJLVWHU�D�YDULHW\�LQ�WKH�RI¿FLDO�FDWDORJXH��,Q�SUDFWLFH��UHOHDVLQJ�SURFHGXUHV�are complex and often subjective.

To successfully achieve its mission, it is important for the NPC-CBSS to work in close collaboration with research and extension institutions, in the early stages of the participatory varietal selection or participatory varietal tests. The NPC-CBSS must also ZRUN�WRZDUGV�UHGH¿QLQJ�UHJLVWUDWLRQ�VWDQGDUGV�RI�YDULHWLHV��

The table below provides the main characteristics for initiating a variety release process. This option has the advantage of valuing farmers’ perceptions while respecting the main international characteristics. Farmers are the main users of the varieties. It is therefore important to use their assessment criteria as a determining factor in the variety release process.

45



Seed production

Seed production under the community-based system begins in the fourth year of participatory varietal selection, that is at the end of PVS-Extension.

A rapid rural appraisal is therefore organized at the level of farmers involved in the PVS-Research and PVS-Extension activities to know the most frequently selected varieties. Seed production is then initiated. It successively provides G0, G1 and G2 Foundation seed. At the end of G2 or sometimes at the G3 Foundation seed, production is done by farmers, if the variety is released.

Early initiation of seed production helps farmers to access new varieties within a relatively short time.

Linkages between activities

In Figure 4 are listed links to be forged with varietal testing mechanisms (PVS-Research and PVS-Extension), release of new varieties and production of seed.

8VLQJ�WKH�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�YDULHWDO�VHOHFWLRQ�PHWKRGV�KHOSV�WR�GUDZ�PRUH�EHQH¿WV�IURP�WKH�testing of new varieties. In fact, it fosters an increase in the number of varieties tested in farmers’ real conditions. It also facilitates the variety release process and speeds up seed multiplication.

Compared to the classical approach, participatory varietal selection has three major advantages:

x� 7KH�IDUPHU�EHFRPHV�DQ�RSHUDWRU�LQ�WKH�YDULHWDO�WHVWLQJ�DQG�UHOHDVH�SURFHVV�

x� The farmer selects from a large range of varieties (between 60 and 100), instead of WKUHH�RU�¿YH�YDULHWLHV��DV�LV�XVXDOO\�DGYRFDWHG��

x� The scientist runs less risk of eliminating varieties that would have been deemed promising by farmers.

Participatory varietal selection

46



PVSResearch

PVSExtension

Releaseprocess

CBSS promotion

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Year 4

Year 5

Year 6

Year 7

Year 8

Varietal trial garden

1st year ofparticipatoryvariety test inPVS sites

2nd year ofparticipatoryvariety test inPVS sitesConclusion

1st year ofparticipatoryvariety test outside PVS locations

2nd year of participatoryvariety test outside PVS locations

Release process initiation �&RQ¿UPDWLRQtests)

DemonstrationsEnd of the release process

6SHFL¿F�participatory seed appraisal. Production of G0 seed of selected varieties

G1 Foundation seed production

G2 Foundation seed production

&HUWL¿FDWLRQ

Basic seed production

CBSS Training course

Acceptable Quality seed production

CBSS training course

Figure 4. Links between varietal testing and diffusion mechanisms

47



$�EHDXWLIXO�¿HOG

48


Module V: Practical advice for maintaining seed quality

Module VPractical advice for maintaining

seed quality

49



This module:

* aims to:

- Provide information needed by technicians on various organizational aspects of seed production;

- Reinforce farmers’ capacity to better meet their seed requirements

50



Objective

The module aims at providing the critical information needed by technicians to fully grasp various organizational aspects of seed production and to reinforce farmers’ capacity to meet their seed requirements through the community-based seed system.

For this purpose, recommendations are given below. They take into account indigenous knowledge and propose simple means of improvement. These means include better management of harvest and post-harvest operations as well as seed quality control.

Managing harvest and post-harvest operations

5HFRPPHQGDWLRQV�LQYROYH�¿YH�PDLQ�RSHUDWLRQV�GXULQJ�ZKLFK�VHHG�TXDOLW\�IUHTXHQWO\�deteriorates: harvest, drying, threshing, winnowing and storage.

Harvest

The process of access to acceptable quality seed starts with harvest operations, when rice is well mature. This is not the case for basic seeds, the production of which requires VSHFL¿F�HIIRUWV��UHJDUGLQJ�SDUWLFXODUO\�HDUO\�URJXLQJ��

Two harvest modes are usually utilized: harvest with knife and harvest with sickle. Harvest with a knife is traditionally practiced by women while harvest with the sickle is performed by men. In each case, however, it is desirable that the farmer personally harvests his or her seed.

Recognizing a mature seed

Maturity is generally characterized by a dry panicle axis. Before harvesting rice, the farmer must be sure that half of the panicle axis has dried well.

Panicle axis is the vein on which spikelets are joined. In other words the panicle axis can be seen as the part that links the grain to the main panicle vein.

Recognizing a mature seed

Maturity is generally characterized by a dry panicle axis. Before harvesting rice, the farmer must be sure that half of the panicle axis has dried well.

Panicle axis is the vein on which spikelets are joined. In other words the panicle axis can be seen as the part that links the grain to the main panicle vein.

51



If harvest is conducted with a knife, the farmer selects the best plants from which he or VKH�FROOHFWV�WKH�KHDYLO\�¿OOHG��GLVHDVH�IUHH�DQG�ZHOO�PDWXUH�SDQLFOHV�WR�EH�FRQVHUYHG�DV�seed. Full harvest is then conducted on the whole plot.

Where harvesting is conducted with a sickle, it is recommended that the farmer selects D�SRUWLRQ�RI�WKH�¿HOG�ZKHUH�WKH�SODQWV�DUH�WKH�PRVW�YLJRURXV��+H�RU�VKH�UHPRYHV�IRUHLJQ�species (off-type plants and weeds) from that portion. It is only then that he or she can harvest his or her seed. The rest of the harvest will be used for consumption.

Selecting and harvesting the best panicles (the whole family at work)

52



Off-types are distinguished by external signs like:

x� +HLJKW�±�RII�W\SHV�FDQ�EH�WDOOHU�RU�VKRUWHU�WKDQ�WKH�WDUJHWHG�YDULHW\�

x� Cycle – off-types can have a different maturity cycle. They can mature earlier or ODWHU�WKDQ�WKH�WDUJHWHG�YDULHW\�

x� Grain color – off-types can have a different color at various levels (leaves, panicles, QHFN��

x� Grain shape – off-types can have grains that differ from those of the targeted variety �WKLQ��VPDOO��EXON\��ORQJ��ODUJH��

x� /HDI�VKDSH�±�RII�W\SHV�FDQ�KDYH�GLIIHUHQW�OHDI�VKDSHV��HUHFWHG��GURRS\��

x� Hair presence – off-types can have hair on their leaves. The presence of hair is FRPPRQO\�XVHG�E\�IDUPHUV�WR�URJXLQJ�RXW�ZLOG�VSHFLHV�

x� Awn presence – off-types may have awns or not. The awn looks like a beard hanging from the top end of the grain.

x� Plants showing susceptibility to diseases and/or insect pests.

x� Any plant that differs in one or more characteristics from the original variety is considered an off-type and must therefore be removed before harvest. This is particularly important when harvest is conducted with a sickle.

Off-type plants removal Harvest with a sickle

53



Drying

When seed has just been harvested, it is still wet and must therefore be dried. A well dried seed is easily conserved and is often not attacked by insects or fungal diseases.

Good drying procedure:

x� Spread the seed every day in the open air for about one week. The seed must preferably be dried in the shade. Drying under the scorching sun is not advisable because high ground temperatures can be lethal to seed and cracks, which are injurious FDQ�DOVR�GHYHORS�LQ�WKH�VHHG�

x� Stir the seed from time to time to ensure good ventilation.

Germination due to bad drying

Rice drying in a Savannah zone (Côte d’Ivoire)

Rice drying in a Sudano Sahelian zone

Rice drying in a Forest zone (Guinea, Ghana)

54



Threshing

Threshing is a sensitive operation. It must be carefully carried out to reduce the risks of cracking the seed, contaminating it with diseases or mixed varieties.

Before threshing therefore:

x� &DUHIXOO\�FOHDQ�WKH�WKUHVKLQJ�ÀRRU��7KH�WKUHVKLQJ�ÀRRU�FDQ�EH�PDGH�RI�FHPHQW�RU�clay. If such facilities are not available, cover the ground with a tarpaulin, plastic VKHHW�RU�FORWK�

x� 7KUHVK�HDFK�YDULHW\�VHSDUDWHO\�

x� If possible, winnow the threshed seed immediately.

If threshing is done by machine, make sure that the machine has been thoroughly cleaned before use. It is recommended to leave the machine on for at least a number of minutes to remove the grains that were stuck in it. Systematically remove these grains and use WKH�¿UVW�EDWFK�WKDW�FDPH�RXW�RI�WKH�PDFKLQH�DV�JUDLQ��7KH�VXEVHTXHQW�EDWFKHV�FRXOG�WKHQ�be used as seed.

This mode of manual threshing is prohibited

ASI Thresher-cleaner

55



Winnowing

Winnowing aims to clean the seed, that is, to remove impurities.

These impurities can be straw, plant debris, weed seeds, insects or stones. Winnowing is therefore an important operation in the seed quality improvement process.

For proper winnowing, the farmer must:

x� &OHDQ�WKH�ZLQQRZLQJ�ÀRRU�YHU\�ZHOO��+H�RU�VKH�FDQ�XVH�D�WDUSDXOLQ��SODVWLF�VKHHW�RU�FORWK�

x� :LQQRZ�WKH�YDULHWLHV�VHSDUDWHO\�DQG�SUHIHUDEO\�DW�GLIIHUHQW�ORFDWLRQV�

x� Gather containers containing the same variety at the same place. Just like threshing, if winnowing is conducted with a machine, make sure that the machine has been thoroughly cleaned. Systematically remove the grains cleaned earlier. The farmer can then collect his or her seed.

Small-scale thresherManual winnowing

56



Storage

Storage is a sensitive operation in seed management. It can last for a few weeks to several months and therefore deserves special care.

Many storage methods are currently used. Traditional methods seem, however, to be more adapted to farmers’ resources and do not need a lot of investment.

A few practical recommendations for markedly improving traditional storage methods are made below. They aim mainly to reduce the risks of mixing varieties and to visibly improve seed protection against pests.

Conservation in the granary in the Savannah zone

For good seed storage, it is advisable to:

x� &OHDQ�WKH�JUDQDU\�ZHOO�

x� 0DNH�VXUH�WKH�VHHG�LV�ZHOO�GULHG�

x� 6WRUH�WKH�VHHG�SHU�YDULHW\�

x� $YRLG�PL[LQJ�WKH�YDULHWLHV�

x� Open the granary from time to time to allow good ventilation. If necessary, use insecticides to keep insect pests away.

,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR�JUDQDULHV��RWKHU�VWRUDJH�IDFLOLWLHV�DUH�IUHTXHQWO\�XVHG��7KH\�VSHFL¿FDOO\�involve baskets, boxes, pots, drums, etc.

Storage structures in the Sahel and Sudano-Sahelian zones

57



Conservation in the kitchen in the Forest zone

In this case, it is advisable to:

x� Clean well the storage place located above WKH�¿UH�DUHD��

x� 0DNH�VXUH�WKH�VHHG�LV�ZHOO�GULHG�

x� 3XW�WKH�VHHG�RQ�WRS�

x� 0DNH�VXUH�WKDW�HDFK�YDULHW\�LV�VHSDUDWHO\�FRQVHUYHG�

x� 0DLQWDLQ�ORZ�¿UH�XQGHU�WKH�VHHG��,Q�FDVH�RI�DQ\�LQIHVWDWLRQ�ULVN��EXUQ�JUHHQ�ZRRG�or pepper leaves to keep insects away.

Conservation in sacks

For conservation in sacks, it is necessary to:

x� 0DNH�VXUH�WKDW�WKH�VHHG�LV�ZHOO�GULHG��

x� 7UHDW�WKH�VHHG�ZLWK�DQ�LQVHFWLFLGH�

x� 6WRUH�WKH�VHHG�LQ�FOHDQ�EDJV�

x� Put the bags on wooden pallets or sticks to avoid contact with the ground and to ensure good ventilation.

x� :KHQ�WUHDWLQJ�VHHG�ZLWK�D�FKHPLFDO� LQVHFWLFLGH��DVN�WKH� ORFDO�¿HOG�RI¿FHU�WR�recommend a product. Products commonly used include Actellic 50, Malathion and Chlorpyriphos. These products must be handled with care according to prescribed instructions.

&RQVHUYDWLRQ�RQ�WRS�RI�WKH�¿UH�SODFH�LQ�D�Forest zone

Conservation in sacks

Natural insecticides (Biopesticides)

1DWXUDO�LQVHFWLFLGHV�FDQ�EH�TXLWH�HI¿FLHQW��ZKHQ�WKH\�DUH�ZHOO�SUHSDUHG��6XFK�LV�WKH�FDVH�for neem porridge against termites and stem borers or neem leaves and mints against storage insects.

Other natural insecticides are used in the form of powder or ash. They are prepared with cashew tree barks, cashew fruits, black pepper, pepper or various plant insecticides.

Natural insecticides (Biopesticides)

1DWXUDO�LQVHFWLFLGHV�FDQ�EH�TXLWH�HI¿FLHQW��ZKHQ�WKH\�DUH�ZHOO�SUHSDUHG��6XFK�LV�WKH�FDVHfor neem porridge against termites and stem borers or neem leaves and mints againststorage insects.

Other natural insecticides are used in the form of powder or ash. They are prepared withcashew tree barks, cashew fruits, black pepper, pepper or various plant insecticides.

58



Quality control

Germination and varietal purity tests are conducted to check seed quality. The results achieved will help to decide whether the seed should be renewed or maintained for four RU�¿YH�\HDUV�

Germination tests

Before sowing it is critical to make sure that the seed germinates well. Germination tests must be conducted by the farmer himself or herself.

It is therefore recommended to:

x� 2EWDLQ�WKUHH�OLWWOH�SODWHV�

x� 3XW�D�SUHYLRXVO\�ZHW�FORWK�PDWHULDO�LQ�HDFK�SODWH�

x� 0DNH�WKUHH�VDPSOHV�RI�UDQGRPO\�FROOHFWHG��JUDLQV�

x� 3XW�WKH�VDPSOHV�LQ�WKH�SODWHV�

x� 3XOO�EDFN�WKH�FORWK�RYHU�WKH�VDPSOHV�

x� 3XW�WKH�SODWHV�LQ�WKH�VKDGH�RU�XQGHU�WKH�EHG�

x� Add water each time it is necessary.

At the end of about one week, fold back the cloth materials and count the number of grains that have germinated in each plate. Calculate the average of germinated grains in the three plates to know the germination rate.

- If more than 80 grains have germinated, the seed is good and can be sowed at the normal dosage.

- If less than 80 grains have germinated, seed quantity per hectare must be increased. 7KH�¿HOG�RI¿FHU�FDQ�KHOS�WKH�IDUPHU�WR�FRUUHFW�WKH�GRVDJH�SHU�KHFWDUH�or recommend seed renewal.

Purity test

Purity test aims to ascertain the quality of the variety, to know whether it has not been mixed with other materials or seeds of other varieties. This test is normally conducted in a laboratory. Under CBSS however, pure nucleus seed called UHIHUHQFH�VDPSOHV�are given to innovative farmers and farmers’ organizations to help them recognize the new YDULHWLHV�LQ�FROODERUDWLRQ�ZLWK�¿HOG�RI¿FHUV��7KLV�DSSURDFK�LV�FULWLFDO�IRU�HQVXULQJ�WKH�maintenance of varietal purity for many years.

59



Checking purity

To check seed purity:

x� 0HDVXUH�RXW�RQH�NLORJUDP�RI�UDQGRPO\�FROOHFWHG�VHHG�VDPSOH�

x� Sort out the sample on the basis of grain criteria (shape, color, spots or hair presence, HWF��

x� Separate the various components into two groups:

�� 7KH�SXUH�VHHG�JURXS��WKDW�LV��WKH�JURXS�FRQIRUPLQJ�WR�WKH�YDULHW\�

- The group of other matters (seed of other rice varieties, weed seeds, stones, VWUDZ��OHDYHV��SODQW�GHEULV��LQHUW�PDWWHUV��

x� $VFHUWDLQ�WKH�ZHLJKW�RI�HDFK�JURXS�

x� Calculate the weight percentage of the pure seed. If that percentage is higher than 90, the seed is considered as good. If it is below this, the farmer must renew his or her nucleus seed.

N-B: The operation is repeated three times to ensure the reliability of the results of the purity test.

- Bags of 50 g each are given to seed groupings as reference samples per variety.

60


Annexes

Annexes

61


Annexes

$QQH[��&KDQQHO�IRU�FRQGXFWLQJ�D�VSHFL¿F�UXUDO�DSSUDLVDO

1. 7KLV� FKDQQHO�ZDV� GHYHORSHG� WR� KHOS� WKH� WHFKQLFLDQ� WR� JUDVS� WKH�ZD\� D� VSHFL¿F�participatory appraisal is conducted. It is however better to adapt it to environments depending on the trend of the discussion.

2. Inform the local authorities on the objectives of the participatory appraisal, generally, DQG�RQ�WKH�VLJQL¿FDQFH�RI�WKH�VSHFL¿F�SDUWLFLSDWRU\�DSSUDLVDO��VSHFL¿FDOO\�

3. Select together a date and hour to hold the meeting.

4. Stick to the selected date and hour.

5. Link up with the village community through conventional channels, that is, the village chief, customary heads or producer grouping managers and women or youth associations.

6. Follow the usual greeting procedures used in the community before any discussion. This greeting may be very long. It is however a prerequisite for any discussion.

7. Begin the interview in a plenary session with interested farmers. The duration of the interview must not exceed two hours to avoid boring them.

8. 6KRZ�LQWHUHVW�LQ�JHQHUDO�LQIRUPDWLRQ�RQ�ULFH�IDUPLQJ��VSHFL¿FDOO\�RQ�LWV�LPSRUWDQFH�in the zone, the number of farmers involved, areas sown, etc.

9. Enquire about the main rice production and trade constraints and opportunities and DERXW�VHHG�VSHFL¿FDOO\��7KH�SUREOHP�WUHH�LV�D�FRPPRQO\�XVHG�DSSUDLVDO�WRRO�LQ�WKLV�VSHFL¿F�FDVH�

10. Enquire about varieties cultivated by farmers and how they obtain seed.

11. Discuss the management problems of cultivated varieties and their origin. If these problems are many, however, plan another meeting to look into them in detail. Avoid discussing many problems in one session.

12. Round up the discussions conducted and ask farmers if they have other issues to raise.

13. After discussions in a plenary session, it would be better to further the appraisal through individual interviews. These interviews can involve individual seed producers or producer groupings. They help to fully grasp the problems and to KLJKOLJKW�WKH�VSHFL¿FLWLHV�RI�WKH�YLOODJH�FRPPXQLW\�YLVLWHG�

x� 3DUWLFLSDWRU\�DSSUDLVDO�PXVW�EH�ÀH[LEOH�� ,W�PXVW�EH�FRQGXFWHG� LQ�D�ZD\�that generates fruitful debates that can lead to sustainable solutions.

62


Annexes

Annex 2: Problem tree developed by farmers in Danané, in Côte d’Ivoire

The problem tree covers the main problem (trunk), the causes of the problem (roots), the consequences of the problem (branches) and the solutions advocated by farmers (fruits).

The problem tree is a very popular appraisal tool among farmers, who can draw it on the ground or on the blackboard. It helps to highlight the complex links between a given SUREOHP�DQG�WKH�VROXWLRQV�VSHFL¿FDOO\�DGYRFDWHG�E\�IDUPHUV��7KHVH�VROXWLRQV�PXVW�EH�WDNHQ�LQWR�DFFRXQW�LQ�¿HOG�DFWLYLW\�SODQQLQJ�

DiseasesMixed seeds

Producing their own seed

Observing production standards

Keeping seed far

away from home

Sorting

Seed consumptionLack of quality seed

Crop GLYHUVL¿FDWLRQ Seed

treatmentGermination

tests Roguing

Winnowing

Poor quality seed

Erosion

Low germination rate

Low soil fertility

Weed presence

Rainfall GH¿FLW

High cost of seed

Production decrease

63


Annexes

Principal causes of the decrease of rice seed quality

Annex 3: Results of a participatory rural appraisal conducted in N’zerekore in Guinea

Principal constraints of rice seed production and preservation

Low production does not allow us to meet our seed

needs

During religious or familial ceremonies, we use all our

productions

What are your principal constraints in rice seed

production and preservation?

We do not have appropriate seed preservation

infrastructures

,Q�GLI¿FXOW�SHULRGV�ZH�DUH�obliged to sell our seed

Rain irregularity doesn’t help to set up a good seed

strategy

Seed problems appear the day before the seedling

Lack of roguing

Insect attackLow maturity

Use of damaged bags What are the principal causes of the decrease of

your seed quality?

Bad storage facilities

Inadequate drying

Moisture content relatively high

Presence of rats Poor ventilation of the stocks

64


Annexes

Ensure that seed sorting is done correctly

Make the difference between seed and

paddy

Provide good winnowing What solutions would you suggest in order to improve

seed quality?

Store seed in clean bags

Use chemicals or otherwise pepper or ash

Store seed in a clean place

Thresh varieties one after the other

Avoid the risk of mixing seed during transport

Suggested solutions for the improvement of seed quality

Respect farming calendar

Harvest only when seed is very ripe

The head of the household should personally handle

seed issues

Eliminate off-type plants

65


Annexes

Annex 4: Comparison of prices in conventional and community-based seed systems in Côte d’Ivoire (Training workshop in Korhogo, October 2000)

Seed classes Conventional seed system (FCFA)

Community-based seed system (FCFA)

Location Selling price

Selling price

Location Selling price

Selling price

Foundation1 Yamoussoukro 1500 800 Prikro 570 600

Registered seed2 N’goran 82 250

&HUWL¿HG�VHHG��5��3 Man 450 500

&HUWL¿HG�VHHG��5��4 Man 300 350

Seed of Acceptable Quality5 N’goran 106 200

1 The foundation seeds are produced by the National Rice Project under irrigated conditions in Yamoussoukro and under raining conditions in Prikro.

2 The registered seeds are produced by the farmer Yeo Zara at N’goran (Korhogo).3�7KH�FHUWL¿HG�RI��st reproduction are produced by the group “Chinese“ of Kassiapleu (Man).4�7KH�FHUWL¿HG�RI��nd reproduction are produced by the group “Chinese“ of Kassiapleu.5 The seeds of acceptable quality are produced by the farmer Adama Soro at N’goran (Korhogo).

66


Annexes

Annex 5: Cost estimates of Registered seed production in N’Goran village, in Côte d’Ivoire

(Data analyzed at the farmers training workshop in Korhogo, October 2000)

Items Quantity(per hectare)

Unit price(FCFA)

Value(FCFA)

Seeds per hectare (kg) 50 600 30 000

NKP (kg) 100 200 20 000

Urea (kg) 50 190 9 500

Plowing and sowing (man/day) 40 750 30 000

Herbicide (liters) 3 6 000 18 000

Herbicide spray (man/day) 4 750 3 000

Manual weeding (man/day) 32 750 24 000

Harvest (man/day) 38 750 28 500

Drying man/day) 20 750 15 000

Threshing (man/day) 32 750 24 000

Winnowing (man/day) 20 750 15 000

Storage (man/day) 19 750 14 250

Transportation (man/day) 18 750 13 500

Pay off of the farm cart and the donkey (5 years)1 1 895

Bags 88 450 39 600

Total costs of production 286 245

Incomes

Sales (kg) 3 000 250 750 000

Self consumption + Donations + Exchanges (kg) 300 150 45 000

Farmer-saved seed (kg) 200 250 50 000

Total production 3 500 845 000

Cost per kilogram of seed 82

1HW�SUR¿W�SHU�KHFWDUH 557 965

3UR¿W�SHU�NLORJUDP�RI�VHHG� 159

1The depreciation was calculated on the basis of the buying price of the cart (105 000 FCFA) and the donkey (75 000 FCFA) divided by an average life expectancy of 5 years and an area of 19 ha used by the farmer Yeo Zana

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Annexes

Annex 6: Cost estimates of Acceptable Quality seed production in N’Goran village, in Côte d’Ivoire

(Data analyzed at the farmers training workshop in Korhogo, October 2000)

Items Quantity (per hectare)

Unit price(FCFA)

Value(FCFA)

Seeds (kg) 50 250 12 500

NKP (kg) 50 190 9 500

Plowing and sowing (contract) 32 000

First manual weeding (contract) 20 000

Second manual weeding 24 000

Harvest (contract) 25 000

Drying (man/day) 9 750 6 750

Threshing (man/day) 10 750 7500

Winnowing (man/day) 8 750 6 000

Storage (man/day) 8 750 6 000

Transportation (contract) 5 000

Total costs of production 154 250

Incomes

Sales (kg) 1 450 200 90 000

Exchange values (kg) 350 150 52 500

Total production (kg) 1 800 342 500

Cost per kilogram of seed 86

1HW�SUR¿W�SHU�KHFWDUH 188 250

3UR¿W�SHU�NLORJUDP�RI�VHHG 104

68Annexes

Annex 7: Recommended reading

Bèye A.M., Ba M., 1998. 0DQXHO�GH�IRUPDWLRQ�VXU�OHV�QRUPHV�HW�WHFKQLTXHV�GH�SURGXFWLRQ�GHV�semences de riz. (Cas de la zone sud du Sénégal.) Projet de recherche collaborative ISRA/NRBAR-USAID. 93 p.

Bèye A.M., Nwanze K.F., Manners G., 2000. Réussite de la multiplication des semences de riz en milieu réel en Côte d’Ivoire. %XOOHWLQ�GX�5pVHDX�:$61(7 Nº 5 janv. : p. 20-22. ISSN 1595 2916.

Bono M., 1981. Multiplication des semences vivrières tropicales. Presses universitaires de France. ACCT.

Crownwell E., Friis-Hansen E., Turner M., 1992. The seed sector in developing countries: A framework for performance analysis. Working Paper 65, ODI, London.

Extraits des cours de l’ADRAO sur la multiplication des semences. Rokupr, Sierra Leone (21-30 octobre 1991).

FAO, 1996. *OREDO�3ODQ�RI�$FWLRQ. FAO, Rome, Italie.

FAO, 1998. The state of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. FAO, Rome, Italie.

Jones M.P., Dingkun D.M., Johnson D.E., Fagade S.O., 1996. 3URFHHGLQJV�RI� WKH�ZRUNVKRS��$IULFD�$VLD�-RLQW�5HVHDUFK�RQ�,QWHUVSHFL¿F�+\EULGL]DWLRQ�EHWZHHQ�WKH�$IULFDQ�DQG�$VLDQ�5LFH�Species (O. glaberrima and O. sativa). WARDA, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire, 16-18 December 1996. 223 p.

Gregg B.R., van Gastel A.J., 2000. 6HHG�SURGXFWLRQ�PDQXDO�IRU�WKH�LQIRUPDO�VHFWRU. West Africa Seed Development Unit (WASDU) N° 3.

Robert T., 1995. Seed regulatory frameworks and resource-poor farmers: A literature review. Overseas Development Administration (London). 1HWZRUN�3DSHU 51. ISSN 0952-2468.

Seed production and improvement: Assessment for Sub-Saharan Africa. 3URFHHGLQJV� RI� WKH�5HJLRQDO� 7HFKQLFDO�0HHWLQJ� RQ� 6HHG�3ROLF\� DQG�3URJUDPPHV� IRU� 6XE�6DKDUDQ�$IULFD. Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, 23–27 November 1998. FAO, Rome, Italie.

Vandevenne R., 1986. 6WXG\�RI�VHHG�OHJLVODWLRQ�DQG�SURSRVDOV�IRU�FRQWUROOLQJ�DQG�RUJDQL]LQJ�D�VHHG�VHUYLFH�LQ�WKH�:$5'$�5HJLRQ. 199 p. CIDT/ADRAO.

Vandevenne R., 1979. Manuel pour le contrôle au champ des cultures semencières de riz. Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire. 35 p. GERDAT-IRAT, IDESSA.

WARDA, 2000. Participatory varietal selection. 7KH�ÀDPH�VSUHDGV�LQWR��. Proceedings of the Participatory Rice Improvement and Gender/User Analysis Workshop (PRIGA), WARDA, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire, 17-21 April 2000. 84 p.

WARDA, 2001.�6SUHDG�RI�1(5,&$V�LQ�*XLQHD��7RZDUGV�)RRG�6HFXULW\��7KH�+LVWRU\�DQG�.H\V�RI�6XFFHVV��:$5'$��%RXDNp��&{WH�G¶,YRLUH��,QVWLWXW�GH�UHFKHUFKH�DJURQRPLTXH�GH�*XLQpH��&RQDNU\��*XLQpH� ��6HUYLFH�QDWLRQDO�GH� OD�SURPRWLRQ� UXUDOH�HW�GH�YXOJDULVDWLRQ��&RQDNU\��Guinée. 10 pp.

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Annexes

About the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)

The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for sustainable development with the funders of this work. The funders include developing and industrialized country governments, foundations, and international and regional organizations. The work they support is carried out by 15 members of the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, in close collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, and the private sector.

CGIAR Centers

AfricaRice Africa Rice Center (Cotonou, Benin)

Bioversity International Bioversity International (Rome, Italy)

CIAT Centro Internaçional de Agricultura Tropical (Cali, Colombia)

CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research (Bogor, Indonesia)

CIMMYT Centro Internaçional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (Mexico, DF, Mexico)

CIP Centro Internaçional de la Papa (Lima, Peru)

ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (Aleppo, Syria)

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (Patancheru, India)

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute (Washington, DC, USA)

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (Ibadan, Nigeria)

ILRI International Livestock Research Institute (Nairobi, Kenya)

IRRI International Rice Research Institute (Los Baños, Philippines)

IWMI International Water Management Institute (Colombo, Sri Lanka)

World Agroforestry World Agroforestry Centre (Nairobi, Kenya)

WorldFish WorldFish Center (Penang, Malaysia)

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Annexes

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