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Causes of ant sting anaphylaxis in Australia: the Australian Ant Venom Allergy Study

Simon G A Brown, Pauline van Eeden, Michael D Wiese, Raymond J Mullins, Graham O Solley, Robert Puy, Robert W Taylor and Robert J Heddle

The Medical Journal of Australia ISSN:0025-729X 18 July 2011 195 2 69-73©The Medical Journal of Australia 2011www.mja.com.auResearch

Myrmecia pilosula (jack jumper ant [JJA])is the major cause of ant sting anaphylaxisin Tasmania.2 A double-blind, randomisedplacebo-controlled trial has demonstratedthe effectiveness of JJA venom immuno-therapy (VIT) to reduce the risk of stinganaphylaxis, and an ongoing treatment and

4,5

MainidentResua causpecthose

ABSTRACT

Objective: To determine the Australian native ant species associated with ant sting anaphylaxis, geographical distribution of allergic reactions, and feasibility of diagnostic venom-specific IgE (sIgE) testing.Design, setting and participants: Descriptive clinical, entomological and immunological study of Australians with a history of ant sting anaphylaxis, recruited in 2006–2007 through media exposure and referrals from allergy practices and emergency physicians nationwide. We interviewed participants, collected entomological specimens, prepared reference venom extracts, and conducted serum sIgE testing against ant venom panels relevant to the species found in each geographical region.

outcome measures: Reaction causation attributed using a combination of ant ification and sIgE testing.lts: 376 participants reported 735 systemic reactions. Of 299 participants for whom se was determined, 265 (89%; 95% CI, 84%–92%) had reacted clinically to Myrmecia ies and 34 (11%; 95% CI, 8%–16%) to green-head ant (Rhytidoponera metallica). Of with reactions to Myrmecia species, 176 reacted to jack jumper ant (Myrmecia

pilosula species complex), 18 to other jumper ants (15 to Myrmecia nigrocincta, three to Myrmecia ludlowi) and 56 to a variety of bulldog ants, with some participants reacting to more than one type of bulldog ant. Variable serological cross-reactivity between bulldog ant species was observed, and sera from patients with bulldog ant allergy were all positive to one or more venoms extracted from Myrmecia forficata, Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia nigriceps.Conclusion: Four main groups of Australian ants cause anaphylaxis. Serum sIgE testing enhances the accuracy of diagnosis and is a prerequisite for administering species-

MJA 2011; 195: 69–73

specific venom immunotherapy.

henahigT

prevalence of systemic allergy to

tive ant stings in Australia is ash as 3% in areas where these

insects are commonly encountered, such asTasmania and regional Victoria.1,2 In onelarge Tasmanian emergency departmentstudy, ant sting allergy was the most com-mon cause of anaphylaxis (30%), exceedingcases attributed to bees, wasps, antibioticsor food.3

research program has been established.Access to treatment outside Tasmania islimited by inadequate knowledge of thecausative species in other regions and theabsence of diagnostic tests for other antspecies. Accurate diagnosis is further com-plicated because the JJA is a “species com-plex”, comprising seven closely relatedspecies with almost identical morphology.These were first recognised by chromo-somal differences but can now be distin-guished using subtle differences inmorphological characteristics.6

The objectives of the Australian AntVenom Allergy Study were to determine thegeographical distribution of the major antspecies associated with anaphylaxisthroughout Australia, and to examine thefeasibility of newly developed diagnostictesting to confirm the diagnosis of allergy tonon-JJA ant species.

METHODS

Study populationIn 2006 and 2007, we requested case refer-rals from Australian doctors with allergypractices by emailing all members of theAustralasian Society of Clinical Immunologyand Allergy, and from emergency medicinespecialists by emailing all Fellows of theAustralasian College for Emergency Medi-cine. We also used press releases and storiesin regional newspapers and on radio andtelevision, and web search indexing with a

study home page, to encourage people withant sting allergy to contact us directly.

Inclusion criteria were a history of a gen-eralised systemic allergic reaction to an iden-tified or suspected ant sting. Cases wereexcluded if investigation indicated that asystemic reaction did not occur or that anant sting was not the cause. The humanresearch ethics committees of each investi-gator’s institution granted ethics approval.Participants gave written informed consent.

Clinical dataParticipants identified the responsible ant(where possible) from colour illustrations ofcommon species and completed a question-naire, followed by a structured telephone orface-to-face interview. We recorded partici-pants’ age and sex, the geographical locationwhere each reaction occurred, reaction fea-tures, a description of the insect andwhether it was clearly seen to sting or

implicated by circumstance (eg, seennearby), and a reaction severity grade ofmild (skin only), moderate (involvement ofadditional organ systems) or severe (hypo-tension or hypoxaemia).3 Serum sampleswere obtained and stored at − 80° C untilanalysis.

Entomological specimens, collection and identificationWith the assistance of participants’ non-ant-allergic family or friends, 2–4 specimens ofant(s) were provided from each locationwhere systemic reactions had occurred. Antswere not collected from the Northern Terri-tory, northern Queensland or northernWestern Australia because few participantscame from these areas, nor from Tasmania,as ants in that region are already well char-acterised. Wherever possible, the investiga-tors made field trips to collect additionalspecimens for identification and whole ant

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nests (colonies) for venom extraction fromareas where stings had occurred. Ant colo-nies were transported on dry ice, then storedat − 80° C until venom sac dissection andprocessing, as previously described.4,7,8

Specimens were identified by one of us(R W T) and deposited in the Common-wealth Scientific and Industrial ResearchOrganisation (CSIRO) Australian NationalInsect Collection.

Venom extractsAfter morphological identification, venomsextracted from different sibling species ofthe JJA species complex were analysed bypolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis accord-ing to our previously established methods.9

Once homology of venoms from siblingspecies was confirmed, we used a standard-ised JJA extract produced by the TasmanianJack Jumper Allergy Program for ourvenom-specific IgE (sIgE) assays.7

For all other species, venom extracts fromthe same species were pooled to create

reference venoms for use in sIgE assays, onlyafter both formal entomological identifica-tion and confirmation of the presence ofidentical bands on polyacrylamide gel elec-trophoresis in venom samples from eachcomponent colony.

Venom-specific IgE assays and determining reaction causationA time-resolved fluorescence method, disso-ciation-enhanced lanthanide fluoroimmu-noassay (DELFIA; Wal lac , Turku,Finland),10 was used to detect sIgE against apanel of ant venoms relevant to each geo-graphical region where sting reactions hadoccurred. Venom panels for sIgE testingwere chosen for each region based on ourcollected specimens and known distribu-tions.11,12 We were unable to include speciesif they were rarely encountered and wecould not obtain sufficient venom.

The cause of each reaction was attributedusing a combination of ant identification andsIgE testing, as outlined in Box 1. A single

positive sIgE result allowed us to confirm aclear ant description or, if there was someuncertainty about the ant(s) described,allowed us to decide between several possi-ble causes. However, multiple positive sIgEresults (representing either cross-reactivityor multiple sensitisations) required a highdegree of clinical certainty (visual identifi-cation) before attributing causation.

Statistical analysisProportions were calculated with 95% confi-dence intervals (binomial exact) (Stata, release11; StataCorp, College Station, Tex, USA).

RESULTSThree hundred and seventy-six participantsreported 735 systemic reactions. Basicdemographic and reaction data are shown inBox 2. We identified 283 specimens ofstinging ants collected from locations wherereactions had occurred (Box 3). There werefour dominant ant species or groups, eachwith characteristic morphology: (i) JJA spe-cies complex; (ii) other jumper ants(Myrmecia nigrocincta in New South Walesand Queensland, Myrmecia ludlowi in WA);(iii) bulldog ants (BDA) of the Myrmeciagulosa species group; and (iv) Rhytidoponerametallica (green-head ant [GHA]) (Box 4).

Venom-specific IgE results and reaction causationVenoms used for sIgE testing for each regionare shown in Box 3. Serum samples from325 participants (86%; 95% CI, 83%–90%)were sIgE-positive to one or more venomsrelevant to the geographical regions wherethe stings occurred. Reaction causes were

2 Participant demographics and reaction characteristics

Characteristic

Number of participants 376

Age in years, median (IQR) 46 (33–64)

Male 158 (42%)

Age in years at first reaction, median (IQR)

46 (19–58)

Years since last reaction, median (IQR)

1.7 (0.4–5.0)

Severity of worst reaction

Mild 22 (6%)

Moderate 150 (40%)

Severe 204 (54%)

IQR = interquartile range. ◆

1 Determining reaction causation in 376 participants with ant stings

DELFIA = dissociation-enhanced lanthanide fluoroimmunoassay. sIgE = venom-specific IgE. GHA = green-head ant. JJA = jack jumper ant. BDA = bulldog ant. ◆

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designated for 299 participants (80%; 95%CI, 75%–83%) (Box 1). For the remaining77 participants (20%), 38 of whom werestung in northern Australia, a reaction causecould not be attributed.

Of the 299 participants for whom a causecould be determined, 265 (89%; 95% CI,84%–92%) had reacted to Myrmecia speciesand 34 (11%; 95% CI, 8%–16%) to GHA.No participant was judged as reacting clini-cally to both GHA and Myrmecia species. Ofthe 265 participants clinically reactive toMyrmecia species, 186 (70%; 95% CI, 64%–76%) reacted to jumper ants alone, 49 (18%;95% CI, 14%–24%) to BDA alone and seven(3%; 95% CI, 1%–5%) to both BDA andjumper ants. For 23 (9%; 95% CI, 6%–13%), the species or species group ofMyrmecia responsible could not be deter-mined. Of the 193 who had reacted clinically

to jumper ants, this was JJA in 175 cases(91%; 95% CI, 86%–94%), M. nigrocincta in15 (8%; 95% CI, 4%–12%), M. ludlowi intwo, and both M. ludlowi and JJA in one case.

Geographical distribution of reactionsThe geographical locations of reactions tocausative ants are mapped in Box 5. JJAreactions occurred in Tasmania, southerncoastal WA, South Australia, Victoria andsouthern coastal and mountainous regions ofNSW and the Australian Capital Territory.The distribution of JJA sting reactions closelymirrors that for entomological collectionrecords of specimens of the M. pilosula spe-cies complex.12 Reactions to BDA occurredin the same areas as JJA reactions and alsoextended to more inland and northern partsof NSW and further north in WA, as far asGeraldton. M. ludlowi was also a cause of

reactions in the areas where BDA were foundin WA. M. nigrocincta and GHA reactionswere largely clustered around northerncoastal NSW and south-east Queensland.

Venom-specific IgE cross-reactivity and multiple sensitisationsWe were unable to distinguish between sen-sitisation to multiple ant species and truecross-reactivity. However, some patientswere sIgE-positive to one venom or venomgroup alone without positive results to othervenoms tested, indicating the presence ofunique allergens in these venoms — thisapplied to 15 of 34 patients reacting to GHA(44%), 55 of 176 reacting to JJA (31%), 5 of15 reacting to M. nigrocincta (33%), one ofthree reacting to M. ludlowi (33%), and 47 of56 reacting to venom(s) of BDA (84%).

In sera tested for sIgE against multiplevenoms from BDA, the following patternswere observed.

WA: With the exception of one samplenegative to Myrmecia nigriceps, all 18 serumsamples tested for reactions occurring in WAwere positive to all of Myrmecia gratiosa,Myrmecia pavida and M. nigriceps venomswith very similar quantitative titres. Thesethree venoms also had identical proteinbands on gel electrophoresis. Nine serumsamples were also sIgE-positive to Myrmeciaregularis.

SA and Victoria: Of 26 serum samplestested for reactions in these states, 22 weresIgE-positive to Myrmecia forficata venom,of which 14 were also positive to Myrmeciapyriformis, and 10 to M. nigriceps. Of theremaining four sera, one was sIgE-positiveto M. nigriceps venom alone, one to M.pyriformis venom alone, and two were posi-tive to both these venoms. Five of eight seratested for reactions in Victoria were sIgE-positive to Myrmecia simillima, but never tothis venom alone.

NSW/ACT/Queensland: All 13 serum sam-ples tested for reactions occurring in theseregions were sIgE-positive to M. forficataand/or M. nigriceps venoms. Ten were alsopositive to one or more of the other venomsof BDA for these regions.

DISCUSSION

We found Myrmecia species to be the pre-dominant cause of ant sting anaphylaxis inAustralia. JJA stings were the most commoncause, followed by stings from species ofBDA, the GHA, and then the jumper ants M.nigrocincta in northern NSW and Queens-

3 Ant species implicated in sting reactions, and venoms used for sIgE testing*

No. of specimens collected

Species Tas† SA Vic NSW/ACT Qld WA Total (%, 95% CI)

Jumper ants

Jack jumper ant 102 44 14 1 161

Myrmecia nigrocincta 5 13 18

Myrmecia chasei 1 1

Myrmecia swalei 1 1

Myrmecia ludlowi 2 2

Total jumper ants — 102 44 19 13 5 183 (65%, 59%–70%)

Bulldog ants

Myrmecia forficata 2 2 4

Myrmecia pyriformis 8 4 12

Myrmecia brevinoda 1 1

Myrmecia nigriceps 1 1

Myrmecia tarsata 1 1

Myrmecia simillima 1‡ 1

Myrmecia gulosa 3 3

Myrmecia gratiosa 12 12

Myrmecia pavida 4 4

Myrmecia nigriscapa 1 1

Myrmecia regularis 1 1

Total bulldog ants — 11 6 6 0 18 41 (14%, 11%–19%)

Green-head ants — 1 0 12 32 0 45 (16%, 12%–21%)

Other stinging ants — 2 2 4 3 1 14§ (5%, 3%–8%)

Total — 116 52 41 48 24 283

sIgE = venom-specific IgE. Tas = Tasmania. SA = South Australia. Vic = Victoria. NSW = New South Wales. ACT = Australian Capital Territory. Qld = Queensland. WA = Western Australia. * Shaded cells indicate venoms used for sIgE testing. Sera were tested according to the location of participants’ reported reactions (ie, multiple regions if relevant). † Specimens were not collected from Tasmania, as ants in that region are already well characterised. ‡ This specimen was returned from an area close to the Victorian border; M. simillima was not encountered on field trips to any other regions of SA. § Rhytidoponera sp. (not R. metallica), 8; Odontomachus sp., 4 (includes 2 in Northern Territory); Aphaenogaster, 1; and Tetramorium, 1. ◆

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land and M. ludlowi in WA. While our find-ings are broadly consistent with a number ofprevious reports,1,2,13-16 this is the first timethat it has been possible to confirm thecausative species using sIgE testing againstan extended panel of relevant venoms.

Our study has some limitations. Recruit-ment into the study was potentially biasedbecause the doctors we targeted (allergists,clinical immunologists and emergency phy-sicians) tend to be in or near populationcentres, and because of potentially variableinterest by regional media outlets. For prac-tical reasons, we also did not obtain venomextracts from far northern areas of Australia.

The causative species group could not beconfirmed in 20% of cases, mostly due tonegative sIgE results. Possible causes of thisinclude allergy to less common species forwhich venom extracts were unavailable, andfalse negative results because of relativelypoor sensitivity of serum sIgE assays com-pared with intradermal skin testing (IDT).The multicentre nature of our study pre-cluded IDT, although it should be noted thatthis is also an imperfect test.17

While substantial antigenic cross-reactiv-ity and/or multiple sensitisations to differentvenoms was observed,18 the frequency withwhich sera were positive to only one of thevenoms or venom groups indicated the pres-ence of venom allergens unique to eachspecies. In particular, it should be noted thatwhile the venoms of the various siblingspecies of the M. pilosula species complexappear to be homologous by gel electro-phoresis, there are other jumper ants (M.nigrocincta and M. ludlowi) with very differ-ent venoms for which the currently availableJJA venom extract will not be useful fordiagnosis or VIT.

By contrast, the venoms of the M. gratiosa,M. pavida and M. nigriceps BDA appear to bepractically identical. While the venom rec-ognition patterns are more complex forother BDA, all sera in our study were posi-tive to one or more of M. forficata, M.pyriformis and M. nigriceps. These three ven-oms are therefore likely to include most orall of the major BDA allergens.

A major challenge we encountered wasthe large number of potentially allergenicvenoms, allergenic cross-reactivity betweenvenoms, and the potential for multiple sen-sitisations from stings by different speciesexperienced by any one individual. This isnot uncommon when assessing patientswith insect venom allergy. Examining theability of different venoms to inhibit sIgEbinding to each other in each serum sample

4 Australian ant species that cause allergic reactions

A: A large bulldog ant (Myrmecia pyriformis) and a smaller jumper ant and (inset) a green-head ant (~ 6 mm long, dark black–metallic green). Jumper ants can be further divided on the basis of colouration as either a jack jumper ant (JJA) or another jumper ant. B: JJA, usually 10–12 mm long, black body with orange–yellow mandibles, and moves with short jerks and jumps. C: Another jumper ant, Myrmecia nigrocincta, which is similar in size and behaviour to the JJA but with bright red body segment(s). The jumper ants Myrmecia ludlowi, Myrmecia swalei and Myrmecia chasei have similar body colouration. D: A typical jumper ant nest, covered with small stones. E–H: Bulldog ants of the Myrmecia gulosa species group, 20–30 mm long and a variety of colours. E: Myrmecia gulosa, the prototype for the group; F: Myrmecia gratiosa, which predominates in the Darling Scarp area east of Perth, Western Australia; G: Myrmecia nigriceps; and H: Myrmecia forficata, which predominates in Tasmania. ◆

5 Geographical distribution of ant sting allergic reactions

M. = Myrmecia. ◆

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can distinguish the primary sensitisingvenom, identify allergenically identical ven-oms or confirm the presence of sensitisa-tions to multiple venoms.19 However,sensitisation with demonstrable sIgE doesnot necessarily result in clinical reactivity.20

Thus, the presence of sIgE is only used toconfirm a diagnosis that has been madefrom a clinical history including a descrip-tion of the insect (if seen), circumstances ofthe sting and a detailed knowledge of localinsect species.21

Management of sting anaphylaxis centreson identification of the causative insect,avoidance strategies where possible (eg, nestremoval, moving to a location where thespecies is absent or less common), provisionof an emergency action plan, and VIT whereavailable. Although economic factors maypreclude the production of therapeutic antvenom extracts for all species when onlysmall numbers of patients are affected, thedevelopment of diagnostic sIgE assays willhelp distinguish between allergy to nativeant species and allergy to other insect spe-cies, and thus facilitate the accurate applica-tion of VIT.

VIT is currently subsidised by the Phar-maceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) in Aus-tralia for the treatment of honeybee andwasp (Polistes and yellowjacket) allergy. JJAVIT is currently funded in Tasmania by thestate government; the venom extract can besupplied to interstate hospitals as an activepharmaceutical ingredient for on-site for-mulation and dispensing,22 but is not subsi-dised by the PBS and the cost must becovered in full by the hospitals and/orpatients. No venom extracts suitable forhuman use are available for other Australianant species at this time. Future work in thisarea should focus on confirming the appar-ent antigenic homology of closely relatedvenoms and developing standardised venomextracts for diagnostic and therapeutic use.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis work was funded by National Health andMedical Research Council (NHMRC) Project Grant404050, NHMRC Career Development Award513901 (Simon Brown), and grants by the Australa-sian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergyand the Fremantle Hospital Medical ResearchFoundation. We gratefully acknowledge the workof our research nurses who conducted interviewsand research assistants who helped to collect nests,dissect venom sacs and prepare venom extracts(Pam Hudson, Ellen MacDonald, Sharon Marsden,Kevin Mullins, Judith Hawker, Dr Susan Aulfrey). DrKarl Bleasel (Royal Melbourne Hospital) alsoassisted with enrolling participants from Victoria.

COMPETING INTERESTSRaymond Mullins received unrestricted investiga-tor-initiated grants for data purchase from CSLLimited and Alphapharm Australia (the past andcurrent Australian distributors of EpiPen) and theIlhan Food Allergy Foundation, Melbourne. RobertHeddle is employed by SA Pathology, which offersin-vitro diagnostic testing for specific IgE to jumperant venom. Robert Taylor has received honorariaand travel support from the NHMRC.

AUTHOR DETAILSSimon G A Brown, MB BS, PhD, FACEM, Professor,1 and Consultant2

Pauline van Eeden, BAppSci(MLS), PhD, Research Associate1

Michael D Wiese, BPharm, MClinPharm, PhD, Senior Lecturer,3 and Consultant2

Raymond J Mullins, PhD, FRACP, FRCPA, Immunology and Allergy Physician and Adjunct Professor4

Graham O Solley, MB BS, FACP, Allergist5

Robert Puy, MB BS, FRACP, Immunology and Allergy Physician6

Robert W Taylor, PhD, Adjunct Professor,7 and Honorary Fellow8

Robert J Heddle, PhD, FRACP, FRCPA, Head of Clinical Immunology, Chief Pathologist and Associate Professor9

1 Centre for Clinical Research in Emergency Medicine, Western Australian Institute for Medical Research, Royal Perth Hospital, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA.

2 Jack Jumper Allergy Program, Royal Hobart Hospital, Hobart, TAS.

3 Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA.

4 Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT.

5 Watkins Medical Centre, Brisbane, QLD.6 Department of Allergy, Immunology and

Respiratory Medicine, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC.

7 Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT.

8 CSIRO Division of Sustainable Ecosystems, Canberra, ACT.

9 Immunology Directorate, SA Pathology, Royal Adelaide Hospital and Flinders University, Adelaide, SA.

Correspondence: simon.brown@uwa.edu.au

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19 Hamilton RG, Wisenauer JA, Golden DB, et al.Selection of Hymenoptera venoms for immuno-therapy on the basis of patient’s IgE antibodycross-reactivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993; 92:651-659.

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Provenance: Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

(Received 25 Nov 2010, accepted 4 Apr 2011) ❏

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