Categorization of Sample Types

   No Random Selection

 

 Random Selection

 No Specific Selection Criteria Applied 

 Convenience Sample

 Simple Random 

Sample

 Specific Selection Criteria Applied 

 Purposive Sample

 Complex Random 

Sample

Sample Business Form

IBID Electronic Whiteboard

Source: http://www.microtouch.com/ibid/ibid100.htm

Requirements DeterminationInformation Gathering Approach Examples

Interview - current system operations  - data needs - proposed system requirements  - process sequences

Questionnaire - confirmation of facts - end-user demographics- general user attitudes

Focus Group - conflicting system requirements- synergies across functional areas

Observation - implementation of current processes- confirmation of interview data

Archival Document Analysis - Org. policies & procedures               - current system documentation- examples of data capture & usage      

External Research - industry best-practices- technological developments

Joint Application Design - synergistic gathering of system requirements- identification of conflicting perspectives

Iterative Prototyping - refined understanding of system configuration- operationalization of system look and feel

Well-Stated System Requirements

Requirements Characteristic

Description

Testable and Verifiable Requirement must be stated to allow for independent verification that the system meets or exceeds the stated requirement.

Justifiable Requirement should be necessary rather than simply desirable.

Unambiguous Requirement should be stated such that multiple  interpretations are excluded.

Consistent Requirement  should  not  be  in  conflict  with  any  other  stated requirement.

Modifiable Requirement should allow for changes in the business environment.

Hierarchically Traceable Requirement should contain a single system attribute and should be traceable back to a higher level requirement.

Testable vs. Nontestable

Testable Requirement Nontestable Requirement

Compute  Price Extension  by  multiplying Quantity by Unit Price.

Price Extension  is  the  total  cost  for  each  item ordered.

Reorder Quantity  is  computed  by  multiplying Average Daily Sales by 30.

Reorder Quantity should be equal  to a 30 day supply.

Daily inventory levels must be accurate. Daily  inventory  levels  must  be  accurate  to within  2%  for  at  least  99%  of  all  raw material stores.

The  system  must  increase  sales  and  market share.

The system will  increase annual sales by 14% and  current  market  share  by  6.5%  within  the first 12 months of operation.

Traditional Information Gathering

Information Gathering Activity

Explanation

Direct Interview Consists  of  meeting  with  individuals  or  small  groups  to  ask questions  about  their  roles,  responsibilities,  and  needs  for  the current and proposed systems.

Questionnaires and Surveys

Consists  of  submitting  written,  structured  questions  to  selected individuals to gather information regarding attitudes, perceptions, or population characteristics.

Direct Observation Consists of observing individuals or groups, processes, and events to  determine  the  facts  surrounding  a  particular  process  or  the culture within a business environment.

Archival Document Analysis

Consists of  reviewing recorded organizational documents such as current  system  documentation,  mission  statements,  policies  and procedures, and recorded memos and reports.

Forms Analysis Consists  of  analyzing  and  cataloging  the  existing  data  capture forms  within  the  organization  to  assist  in  determining  the  current sources and uses of data.

Direct Interview

Advantages Disadvantages

• Analyst can motivate the respondent to answer freely and openly.

• Respondent  can  more  easily  develop  a sense  of  active  contribution  to  the proposed system.

• Analyst  can  probe  for  additional information and feedback.

• Questions can be reworded or restated for better  clarity  or  to  facilitate  mutual understanding.

• Analyst  can  easily  observe  nonverbal communication  channels  such  as  body language and facial expressions.

 

 • The  interview  process  is  time-consuming 

and resource intensive.• Interview success  is highly dependent on 

the communication skills of the analyst.• Geographical  location  of  the  necessary 

respondents  may  make  the  interview process impractical.

Structured vs. UnstructuredVariable Structured

InterviewUnstructuredInterview

Required preparation time High Low

Required contact time with respondent Moderate High

Analyst experience and training required High Low

Evaluation of results and responses Easy Difficult

Degree of spontaneity of responses Low High

Depth and breadth of topic coverage Moderate High

Reliability and precision of responses Moderate to High Low to Moderate

Insight into respondent Low High

Overall analyst control of dialogue High Low to Moderate

Degree of flexibility of interaction Low High

Open vs. Closed Questions

Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions

Advantages

Increase opportunity forspontaneity.

Are generally easier tophrase.

Allow the analyst to useterms and vocabularysimilar to those used by therespondent.

Allow for increasedrichness in detail ofresponse.

Increase opportunities toexplore additional subjectareas.

Are generally moreinteresting to therespondent and place themmore at ease.

Significantly decrease thetime necessary to obtainrequired facts andconfirmations.

Allow for increased controlover the interview process.

Allow for ease of comparisonof responses across multipleinterview sessions.

Leave the impression of aclear set of objectives for theinterview.

Open vs. Closed Questions

Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions

Disadvantages

Can result in responsescontaining irrelevantdetail.

May leave impression thatanalyst is ill-prepared.

Can result in loss ofcontrol of the interviewprocess.

May unnecessarilyincrease the timenecessary to gain usefulinformation due to lengthyresponses.

Can leave the impressionthat the analyst is on a“fishing expedition” andhas no specific objective.

Can be boring for therespondent.

Tend to reduce rapportbetween the analyst andthe respondent.

Minimize richness in detailof response.

Can allow analyst tooverlook or miss importantconcepts or ideas.

Questionnaires

Advantages Disadvantages

•  Questionnaires can often be answered in less time.

• Respondents can answer questions at their convenience.

• Responses can be easily tabulated and analyzed.

• Questionnaires allow for respondents to maintain anonymity.

•  Response rate is often low.• Questionnaires allow for less

flexibility than other, more direct methods.

• No guarantee exists that respondent will answer all questions posed.

• No direct observation of the respondent can be conducted during questioning.

• Questionnaires are often time-consuming and difficult to prepare.

• No opportunity to clarify points or expand on topics covered.

 

Scaling Methods

Scale Type Application Example

Nominal Used to classify objects,people, or items

Which of the following doyou use most often atwork?(1) Word Processor(2) Presentation Graphics(3) Statistical Analysis(4) Spreadsheet

Ordinal Used to classify objectsand provide rank orderinginformation

How often do you use theHelp Desk Services?(1) Never(2) On Occasion(3) Regularly

Scaling Methods (continued)Scale Type Application Example

Interval Used to createscales whereintervals betweenselection optionsare considered to beequal in distance

How useful is the Help Desk Service to yourdaily work? 1 2 3 4 5Not Useful Extremely at All Useful

Ratio Used where theneed for an absolutezero indicating lackof presence ofcharacteristic isrequired

How many hours per day do you spend using the expertsystem?

      0               2               4              6               8

Choosing the Appropriate Scale

Scale Type General Application

Nominal Classification without need for ranking

Ordinal Classification with ranking but without need for equal intervals between ranks

Interval Degree of presence of phenomena using equal intervals without need for absolute zero

Ratio Degree of presence or absence of a phenomena

Confidence Coefficients

Level of Confidence (%) Confidence Coefficient (z)

99 2.58

98 2.33

97 2.17

96 2.05

95 1.96

90 1.65

80 1.25

50 0.67

JAD ParticipantsJAD

ParticipantDescription of Role

Session Leader • organizes and runs the actual JAD session• remains neutral on all issues and does not contribute ideas or opinions• sets the agenda for the meeting• concentrates on keeping to agenda, resolving conflicts, & generating dialogue from participants

User • represents end users’ perspective with regard to proposed system

Manager • represents management’s perspective with regard to proposed system

Project Sponsor • represents all parties responsible for funding and supporting the development effort

Analyst • analyst participation  is  limited  to observation and  listening  to better understand  the needs of the users and managers

Scribe •  responsible  for  taking  notes  and  recording  important  information  and  events  relevant  to  the JAD proceedings

IS Staff • responsible for providing clarification on technical questions and issues• contribute ideas on technical feasibility of and limitations of proposed system components