Catalytic Solubilization and Conversion of Lignocellulosic ...
Transcript of Catalytic Solubilization and Conversion of Lignocellulosic ...
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Catalytic Solubilization and Conversion of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
LANL TeamT.A. Semelsberger (P.I.) , Tony K. Burrell (Co-PI),
Rod L. Borup, Kathryn S. Lovejoy, and Kevin C. Ott
This presentation does not contain any proprietary, confidential, or otherwise restricted information
DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Program Annual Merit Review,EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program
Washington, DC June 07-11, 2010Technology Development Manager : Rick Farmer
PD042
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Project Overview
Timeline • Project Start Date:FY07• Project End Date: FY08• Percent Complete: 100%
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Budget •Project End Date: FY2008• Funding:
•2008: $300K•2009: $0K*•2010: $0K
Barriers • Barriers Addressed
• Feedstock Cost and Availability• Capital Cost and Efficiency of Biomass Gasification/Pyrolysis Technology
Partners• None
*EERE Hydrogen Production and Delivery Budget Zeroed Out
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Project Objectives
Project Objective
Develop novel low temperature chemical routes and catalysts to produce hydrogen/syngas from lignocellulosic feedstocks
The most abundant constituent of biomass is lignocellulosic (~80%). Discovering new chemistries and catalysts that can convert lignocellulosic into
hydrogen/syngas will be critical if biomass is to be used as a feedstock for hydrogen or other alternative fuels.
Lignocellulosic depolymerization/decomposition is the most process intensive (and most challenging) constituent of biomass to convert to hydrogen/syngas
Target: By 2012, reduce the cost of hydrogen produced from biomass gasification to $1.60/gge at the plant gate (<$3.30/gge delivered). By 2017, reduce the cost of hydrogen produced from biomass gasification to $1.10/gge at the plant gate ($2.10/gge delivered).
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U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Project Approach
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In general terms, LANL is in search of novel hydrogen/syngas production routes from lignocellulosics. Two approaches will be explored:
• Catalytic solubilization of lignocellulosics to generate a sugar feedstock stream for downstream APR, and • Solubilization of lignocellulosics followed by APRxn of oligomeric, soluble cellulose.
LANL will conduct screening experiments for evidence of direct aqueous-phase low-temperature reforming of lignocellulosics to hydrogen/syngas through the use of catalysts designed to cleave carbon-carbon bonds of the cellulose backbone. Tandem catalysis approaches, where two catalysts or processes are linked together in a single reaction vessel, will be explored to demonstrate “one-pot” cellulose solubilization followed by aqueous phase catalytic reforming to generate hydrogen. This is important in that if catalysts can be found that will generate hydrogen directly from soluble cellulose oligomers, this provides a ‘one-pot’ approach and offers increased utilization of residual biomass, increased efficiency and the potential for cost reductions both in feedstock and in capital equipment. LANL’s approach to producing hydrogen from lignocellulosics (i.e., middle and bottom routes) is represented by the chemical routes shown in Figure 1 (next slide).
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Project Approach (cont’d, Figure 1)
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Carbohydrates
Cellulose(insoluble)
Lignin (insoluble)
Ethanol(soluble)
digestion OligomerSolution
(Cellobiose)
OligomerSolution
MonomerSolution
(Glucose)
MonomerSolution
Bio-Syngas
Figure 1. A rudimentary diagram showing LANL's approach to producing bio-syngas (i.e, hydrogen and carbon monoxide) from lignocellulosics
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Technical Accomplishments and Progress
• Demonstrated heterogeneous catalyzed hydrolysis of cellobiose to glucose
• Demonstrated the conversion of cellobiose to syngas [albeit at low conversions (~5%)]
Accomplishments for FY2007-2008
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• Demonstrated catalytically enhanced decarboxylation of lignin
• Performed baseline characterization studies on model compounds (i.e., lignin and cellobiose)
• Demonstrated low temperature catalyzed gasification of lignin
Cel
lulo
seLi
gnin
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Overview of Scoping Experiments Performed in FY07-08
• Flow reactor system for liquid conversion (bench-scale)• Batch reactors for liquid/solid conversion (bench-scale)
• Scoping experimental results– Liquid phase conversion
• glucose, cellobiose– Solid phase mass conversion
• lignin, pine– Residual solids analysis
• TGA (thermal gravimetric analysis)• NMR• FTIR (molecular vibrational frequencies)
– Product analysis• LC (liquid chromatograph)• gas analysis
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U N C L A S S I F I E D
Conversion of Liquid Phase Oligomeric Cellulose
• Heterogeneous catalytic conversion of soluble phase– Glucose and Cellobiose to vapor phase products
• Homogeneous catalytic conversion of model cellulose– Cellobiose as model compound to demonstrate solubization
• Operation– Flow reactor
• Well defined conditions (control of T, P, flows)• Gas analysis
– Batch reactors – closed system• Reactants loaded, put in oven
– T = 100 – 275 oC; 4 – 18 hrs• Post analysis
– Catalysts• Base metals, noble metals with Lewis acid supports (Al2O3, zeolites)• Ln Triflates, perfluorosulphonic acid as homogeneous Lewis acids
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U N C L A S S I F I E D
Analytical Tools Employed for Biomass Research
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Back Pressure Regulator
Vapor Phase Product Stream at Ambient Conditions
Prime
Filter
Accuflow Series II Pump
Watlow Temperature
Controller
High Pressure N2 Line: Max 61 bar (900 psig)
Chiller Block
3-Way Valve
Pressure Transducer
Furnace
Liquid Feeds (H2O + Glucose, etc.)
Purge/Activation Gases (MFC 1 and 2 are manifolded)
MTI
M200HPortable Gas Chromatograph
setra
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High Pressure 2-Phase Product Stream
High Pressure Vapor Phase Product Stream
Liquid Product Stream
Needle Valve
Prime
Filter
Accuflow Series II Pump
Watlow Temperature
Controller
High Pressure N2 Line: Max 61 bar (900 psig)
3-Way Valve
Pressure Transducer
Furnace
Liquid Feeds (H2O + Glucose, etc.)
Purge/Activation Gases (MFC 3 and 4 are manifolded)
MTI
M200HPortable Gas Chromatograph
setra
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High Pressure 2-Phase Product Stream
High Pressure Vapor Phase Product Stream
Liquid Product Stream
Reactor 1 Reactor 2
Thermocouple Bank (Type K)
Multi-phase flow reactor• T = 20-1000°C• P = 1-60 atm
Gas Chromatograph (GC)• Gas analyses
Liquid Chromatograph (LC)• Liquid analyses
Additional Analytical Tools• Liquid NMR• Solid-state NMR• Solid-state DRIFTSAdditional Reactors•Multi-well batch reactors for rapid screening
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Evolved Gas Analyzer (EGA) Setup
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Mass Spectrometer (MS)
Gas Phase Infrared Spectrometer (IR)
Thermal Gravimetric Analyzer (TGA)
Gas Chromatogram (GC)EGA Capabilities
Measure mass changes as function of temperature
Correlate mass changes with evolved gas
Identify evolved gases with IR, MS, and GC
EGA system facilitates a deeper understanding of the reaction rates and chemistry
Our suite of analytical tools allow us to gain insight into the fundamental processes of biomass pretreatment and hydrogen production from biomass, thus allowing for tailor-made, energy efficient, cost-effective processes for biomass utilization
Analytical Tools Employed for Biomass Research
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Aqueous Phase Oligomeric-Cellulose Reforming
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Glucose conversion to vapor phase products and trace liquid phase products
Oligomeric-cellulose conversion to glucose, vapor phase products and trace liquid phase products
Cellobiose
Glucose
Cellobiose
Reac
tant: C
ellob
iose Catalyst: Pt/RhCatalyst: None
Conversion: ~ 13.8% Conversion: ~ 42%
GlucoseArea =2.5 e6
Glucose
Different Scale
Area = 7.8 e6
Reac
tant: G
lucos
e Catalyst: Pt
Catalyst: None
Conversion: ~ 68%Biosyngas
BiosyngasCellulose OligomerSolution
HOO
HOOH
O
OH
O
HOOH
OH
OH
C1(n)C1(α/β)
[cat.], H2O HOO
HOOH
OH
OH
C1(α/β)
cellobiose α/β-D-glucose
U N C L A S S I F I E D
SpinWorks 2.5:
PPM 104.0 100.0 96.0 92.0 88.0 84.0 80.0 76.0 72.0 68.0 64.0 60.0 56.0 52.0
file: C:\Documents and Settings\118404\Desktop\Lanthanide_project\nmr\MS-1-14\6\fid expt: <dept135>transmitter freq.: 75.475295 MHztime domain size: 65536 pointswidth: 17985.61 Hz = 238.297995 ppm = 0.274439 Hz/ptnumber of scans: 256
freq. of 0 ppm: 75.467684 MHzprocessed size: 32768 complex pointsLB: 0.000 GB: 0.0000
anomeric carbon signals:C1(n), C1(α/β) and C1(α/β)
cellobiose only (control)
cellobiose + Gd(OTf)3
Catalyzed Hydrolysis of Cellobiose to Glucose
13C NMR
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SpinWorks 2.5:
PPM 108.0 106.0 104.0 102.0 100.0 98.0 96.0 94.0 92.0
file: C:\Documents and Settings\118404\Desktop\Lanthanide_project\nmr\MS-1-14\6\fid expt: <dept135>transmitter freq.: 75.475295 MHztime domain size: 65536 pointswidth: 17985.61 Hz = 238.297995 ppm = 0.274439 Hz/ptnumber of scans: 256
freq. of 0 ppm: 75.467684 MHzprocessed size: 32768 complex pointsLB: 0.000 GB: 0.0000
cellobiose only (control)
cellobiose + Gd(OTf)3:
C1(n)
C1(n)
C1(β)C1(α)
C1(β) C1(α)
C1(β) C1(α)
C1(β) C1(α)
Blue = cellobioseRed = glucose
~ 75 % conversion with catalyst to free glucose without significant decomposition/carmelization
< 5 % conversionto free glucose
SpinWorks 2.5:
PPM 11.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 -1.0 -2.0
file: C:\Documents and Settings\118404\Desktop\Lanthanide_project\nmr\MS-1-18\4\fid expt: <zg30>transmitter freq.: 300.131351 MHztime domain size: 32768 pointswidth: 4496.40 Hz = 14.981450 ppm = 0.137219 Hz/ptnumber of scans: 32
freq. of 0 ppm: 300.129972 MHzprocessed size: 65536 complex pointsLB: 0.000 GB: 0.0000
top: cellulose in D2O
(both spectra on same scale with identical conditions)
bottom: cellulose & Lu(OTf)3 in D2O
free aldehydes & enones
H(a) free glucose
H(b) free glucose
ring protons of free glucose and water soluble oligomers
D2O
Enhanced hydrolysis in the presence of LnX3
1H NMR
Lewis acid catalysis performs hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Solid Phase Conversion of Lignin
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
blank La Triflate 3% H2O2 1% perfluorosulphonicacid
Mas
s C
onve
rsio
n
LigninPine
275 oC / 18 hrs
Enhanced catalytic conversion of solids, but rates slow
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0
5
10
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20
25
30
35
40
H2 N2 CO CH4 CO2
Gas
Con
cent
ratio
n / %
Gd Trfilate / PineYb Triflate / PineLa Triflate / Pine
Gas Analysis post batch reactor operation(N2 from air in overhead reactor space)
0
0.1
0.2
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Gd Trfilate / Pine Yb Triflate / Pine La Triflate / Pine
Nor
mal
ized
Des
ired
Gas
Rat
ios
H2CO CH4
Desired products:CO > H2 > CH4Major products are not alkanes
Lignin + Gd TriflateTreatment @ 275 oC for 18 hrs
Lignin + H2OTreatment @ 275 oC for 18 hrs
Significant reduction in higher residence time species when catalyzed by Gd Triflate
U N C L A S S I F I E D
TGA of Lignin Residue After Various Treatments
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10
20
30
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50
60
70
80
90
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature / oC
% In
itial
Mas
s
Lignin BlankLignin + Gd TriflateLignin + H2O2Lignin + perfluorosufonic acid
Oxidation of Lignin remains unchanged
Atmosphere: Air
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
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0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800Temperature / oC
% In
itia
l Mas
Lignin BlankLignin + Gd TriflateLignin + H2O2Lignin + perflourosulphonic acidLignin + La Triflate
• Decomposition of Lignin• Most cases unchanged• different mechanism w Gd Triflate
Atmosphere: N2
Oxidation of treated pine remains unchanged
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10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
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0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature / oC
% In
itial
Mas
s
Pine
Pine 225 oC / H2O
Pine 275 oC / H2O
Pine 1% perfluorosufonic acid / 275 oC
Pine La Triflate / 275 oC
Fresh pine shows loss of lower molecular weight HC’s
Atmosphere: Air
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20
40
60
80
100
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0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800Temperature / oC
% In
itial
Mas
s
PinePine 225CPine 275 oC / H2OPine 1% perfluorosufonic acidPine La Triflate / 275 oC
Decomposition mechanism unchanged with La Triflate
Fresh pine shows loss of lower molecular weight HC’s
Atmosphere: N2
U N C L A S S I F I E D
TGA and Evolved Gas Analysis: Lignin Treated with Yb Triflate
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DRIFTS: Fresh Lignin
Change in relative quantities of functionalities
Fresh Lignin Hydrolytic T = 25C
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
KM
Lignin Fresh Hydrolytic T = 600C
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
KM
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Wavenumbers (cm-1)
Thermal Decomposition of Lignin
Loss of hydroxyl species
Loss of specific vibrationalfeatures
Observed changes in lignin DRIFTS spectrum after various pretreatments
chemistry is occurring
U N C L A S S I F I E D
TGA and Evolved Gas Analysis: Lignin Treated with Yb Triflate
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SS-NMR of Fresh Lignin
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CO2
CH4
H2
TGA
Temperature (°C)
Mas
s S
pec
Sig
nal (
arb.
uni
ts)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Wt Loss (%
)Low-temperature, catalytic pyrolysis of lignin
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
CO2
CH4
H2
TGA
Temperature (°C)
Mas
s Sp
ec S
igna
l (ar
b. u
nits
)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Wt Loss (%
)
Lignin pyrolysis in the absence of a catalyst
Catalysts show a reduction in temperature required for hydrogen production
Observed changes in SS-NMR spectrum after various pretreatments
chemistry is occurring
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950
Temp (C)
Gas
Conc
entra
tion
(ppm
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
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100
Mass (%
)
H2O
Lignin Mass
CO2
H2
CH4
CO
No evolution of higher molecular weight compounds
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Project Summary
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• Conversion of cellobiose to glucose is feasible, but rates currently too low• Lignin hydrophobicity is a critical challenge for APRxn processes• Recent results of low temperature catalyzed pyrolysis of lignin shows potential
Mechanism of the low temperature catalyzed pyrolysis of lignin currently unknown• Heterogeneous catalysis of glucose and cellobiose
Relatively high conversions during batch reaction (~60 – 90%) Major products appear to be gas phase for heterogeneous catalysis
• Homogeneous catalysis of cellobiose hydrolysis to glucose without significant decomposition and/or caramelization Aqueous cellulose suspension marginally hydrolyzed to free glucose
• Solid conversion of Lignin & Pine increased by Lewis Acid catalysis Gas phase products tend to syngas rather than alkanes Minimal structural change of remaining Lignin (TGA, NMR, DRIFTS)
—Some change in vibrational structure with La Triflate Lignin/Gd Triflate demonstrates different decomposition mechanism
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Obstacles to Lignocellulosic Conversion
• Conversion of solubilized hydrocarbons to vapor phase• Conversion of model compounds simulating solubilization• Unknown reactivity as a function of lignin pretreatment• Lignin Solubilization
– Interactions with catalysts limited– Hydrophobicity– Steric hindrance
• Conversion chemistry– Reaction mechanisms not understood
• Innovation in chemistry and catalysis• Innovation in reactor design and reaction engineering• Current approaches use highly corrosive bases (>10 molar) requiring costlymaterials of construction
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U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work (FY10/11)
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• Continue screening for novel low-temperature biomass gasification catalysts• Explore conversion chemistry of oligomeric cellulose in phase transfer media• Explore lignin solubilization and catalytic conversion chemistry of lignin in phase transfer media (PRIMARY FOCUS)
Obstacles addressed:• Lignin Solubilization
– Interactions with catalysts limited– Hydrophobicity– Steric hinderance
• Conversion chemistry– Reaction mechanisms not understood
• Innovation in chemistry and catalysis• Innovation in reactor design and reaction engineering• Eliminate highly corrosive solvents and/or reactants• Reduce process cost• Increase process efficiency
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: Envisioned Process
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Biomass Digestion Tank: Complete dissolution of raw biomass
Non-Aqueous Phase Reactor: Soluble biomass is cracked into lower molecular weight, water-soluble species
Aqueous Phase Reactor: Water-soluble, lower molecular weight species react in aqueous phase producing biosyn gas or liquid biofuels
1. A non-corrosive, cheap solvent required to dissolve/digest raw lignin, making lignin tractable [Lignin Solublization, Reduce process cost ]
2. An active, durable, cheap water-insoluble catalyst required for cracking lignin into water-soluble oligomers[Innovation in chemistry and catalysis, Innovation in reactor design and reaction engineering, & Increase process efficiency]
3. Reaction chemistries and mechanisms must be understood to optimize process viability and reduce cost [Innovation in chemistry and catalysis , Innovation in reactor design and reaction engineering, & Increase process efficiency]
Innovation in reactor design and reaction engineering
Requirements for process viability
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: Biomass Digestion Tank Chemistry
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Biomass digestion tank
LANL has demonstrated experimentally the dissolution of lignin, keratin, cellulose, and pine dust in various non-aqueous media
• Lignocellulosics are cross-linked by extensive intra-and inter-chain hydrogen bonds
• Solvents that can break up the hydrogen bond network are known to solubilize lignocellulosics
• Ionic liquids are known to have the ability to solubilize lignocellulosics in this way
Non-Aqueous Solvent
Hydrophobic Biomass Solid Hydrophobic Biomass Solution
Literature precedents
Cellulose film containing entrapped laccase (2.78% w/w) formed using the IL-dissolution and reconstitution treatment, before (left) and after (right)
*M. Turner, et al Biomacromolecules. Vol: 5, 1379-1384 (2004)
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: Biomass Digestion Tank Chemistry
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Biomass digestion tank LANL has demonstrated experimentally the dissolution of lignin, keratin, cellulose, and pine dust in various non-aqueous media
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
600160026003600
%Tr
ansm
issi
on
Wavenumbers (cm-1)
methyl cellulose
Cyphos 101
1% wt solution, methyl cellulose in CYPHOS 101
10% slurry, methyl cellulose in CYPHOS 101
50% slurry, methyl cellulose in CYPHOS 101
0102030405060708090
100
140015001600170018001900
% T
rans
mis
sion
Wavenumbers (cm-1)
PR4 (CYPHOS 164)1% keratin in PR42.5% keratin in PR45% keratin in PR47.5% keratin in PR410% keratin in PR420% keratin in PR4solid keratinred wool
0
20
40
60
80
100
600110016002100260031003600
% T
rans
mis
sion
Wavenumber (cm-1)
CYPHOS 101
solid lignin, hydrolytic
solid lignin, organosolv
2.5 wt pct lignin, hydrolytic in CYPHOS 101
2.5 wt pct lignin, organosolv in CYPHOS 101
IR Spectra of dissolved keratin in PTM
IR Spectra of dissolved lignin in PTM
IR Spectra of dissolved cellulose in PTM
Liquid phase IR capable of detecting and quantifying extents of dissolution of keratin, lignin, and celluloseWe will also employ this technique to track the cracking of lignin and
cellulose into lower MW oligomers
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: LT Phase Transfer Chemistry
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LT Phase Transfer Reactor (LT-PTR)
Non-Aqueous Phase Catalyst
Hydrophobic Biomass Solution
Low Molecular-Weight, Water soluble Lignocellulosic Oligomers
• PTM catalyst in presence of trace water partially hydrolyses cellulose
• Produces water-soluble lower MW oligomersof cellulose and lignin
Biphasic IL-metal cation/water systems• Known and demonstrated at LANL
Water-immiscible ILs• Known and demonstrated at LANL
Quaternary PTM immiscible mixture
PTM Phase 1
PTM Phase 2
PTM Phase 3
PTM Phase 4
Water phase
PTM phase Phases have remained immiscible for greater than seven months
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: LT Phase Transfer Chemistry
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LT Phase Transfer Reactor (LT-PTR)• Cellulose and lignin oligomers converted
to biosyn gas or other engineered products
Catalytic hydrolysis of cellulose• Demonstrated in FY2007-2008 research
funded by Hydrogen ProductionAqueous
Phase Catalyst
Low Molecular-Weight, Water soluble Lignocellulosic Oligomers
HOO
HOOH
OH
OH
CO2 + CO + H2
Liquid Fuels
Engineered Product Selectivity
Glucose
Cellobiose
Catalyst: Pt/Rh
Conversion: ~ 42%
*S.K. Hanson, et al J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 428, (2009)
β O-4 linkage
A primary building unit of lignin
LANL LDRD-funded research* has demonstrated catalytic selective oxidation at the β O-4 linkages of a series of model compounds that generate low molecular weight phenols, benzoic acids, aldehydes, among others
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: Cost Estimates
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Cost Estimates using Phase Transfer Media (PTM)Catalyst assumptions:• Mass is equal to SMR plant• Equivalent lifetimes as SMR catalyst • Pt loading = 0.5%
Sizing assumptions:• PTM mass/volume based on a solubility of0.5 g biomass/gPTM• Equivalent lifetimes as SMR catalyst • Reactor residence time= 10 min
Basis:SMR Plant• H2 Production capacity = 2.8 x 105 kg H2/day • Catalyst volume = 20.5 m3
• Catalyst mass = 1.9 x 104 kg • Catalyst lifetime = 5 yrs
Catalyst and PTM Costs• Raw Pt catalyst cost = $5.5Ma
• Assumed catalyst cost = $19M• Phase transfer media (@ $45b/kg) = $0.32M
a Pt catalyst loading 0.5%, Stock Price = $55/gb PTM quoted priceCatalyst cost includes:
• Precious metal recycling cost• 10% Pt loss• Interest
Note: assumed catalyst cost is extremely high compared to current industrial prices; Proposed catalysts do not contain precious metals
MAXIMUM COST CONTRIBUTION OF PTM AND CATALYST
$ 2 2(Solvent and Catalyst) / kg H Produced 0.02 -0.04 $ / kg H=Costs reflect worst case scenario
U N C L A S S I F I E D
LANL Future Work: LT Phase Transfer Chemistry
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Issues to be resolved Individual steps known independently, but not in one system – need to demonstrate If APR of short-chain cellulose oligomers is slow, then we will focus on cracking
lignocellulosics all the way to glucose
Advantages/Uniqueness of LANL Project One pot reactor capable of solubilizing and catalyzing both lignin and cellulose
• Phase transfer catalysis• Water soluble fractions fed into APR process
Extremely flexible process capable of producing various chemical feedstocks for further APR processing
Maximum cost contributions of PTM and catalyst are on the order of $0.02-0.04 per kg of H2 produced
Reactor and plumbing materials can be carbon steel
U N C L A S S I F I E D
Acknowledgements
Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program: Hydrogen Production and DeliveryProgram Manager: Richard Farmer