Case Study of Various Routing Algorithm

5/25/2018 Case Study of Various Routing Algorithm

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Case study of various routing algorithm

a router is used to manage network traffic and find the best route for sending packets.But have you ever thought about how routers do this? Routers need to have someinformation about network status in order to make decisions regarding how and whereto send packets. But how do they gather this information?

Routers use routing algorithmsto find the best route to a destination. When we say"best route," we consider parameters like the number of hops(the trip a packet takesfrom one router or intermediate point to another in the network), time delay andcommunication cost of packet transmission.

Based on how routers gather information about the structure of a network and theiranalysis of information to specify the best route, we have two major routing algorithms:global routing algorithmsand decentralized routing algorithms. In decentralizedrouting algorithms, each router has information about the routers it is directly connectedto -- it doesn't know about every router in the network. These algorithms are also knownas DV(distance vector) algorithms

Dijkstra's algorithm


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Dijkstra's algorithm runtime

Dijkstra's algorithm, conceived by Dutchcomputer scientistEdsger Dijkstrain

1959,[1]is agraph search algorithmthat solves the single-sourceshortest path

problemfor agraphwith nonnegativeedgepath costs, producing ashortest path

tree.This algorithm is often used inrouting.An equivalent algorithm was

developed byEdward F. Moorein 1957.[2]

For a given sourcevertex(node) in the graph, the algorithm finds the path withlowest cost (i.e. the shortest path) between that vertex and every other vertex. It

can also be used for finding costs of shortest paths from a single vertex to a singledestination vertex by stopping the algorithm once the shortest path to the

destination vertex has been determined. For example, if the vertices of the graphrepresent cities and edge path costs represent driving distances between pairs of

cities connected by a direct road, Dijkstra's algorithm can be used to find theshortest route between one city and all other cities. As a result, the shortest path

first is widely used in networkrouting protocols,most notablyIS-ISandOSPF

(Open Shortest Path First).

Algorithm

Let the node we are starting be called an initial node. Let a distance of a node Ybe the distance from the initial nodeto it. Dijkstra's algorithm will assign someinitial distance values and will try to improve them step-by-step.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_search_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_search_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_search_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_F._Moorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_F._Moorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_F._Moorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-IShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-IShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-IShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSPFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSPFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSPFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dijksta_Anim.gihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSPFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-IShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_F._Moorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_treehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(graph_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_search_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra's_algorithm#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_Dijkstrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist


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1. Assign to every node a distance value. Set it to zero for our initial node and

to infinity for all other nodes.

2. Mark all nodes as unvisited. Set initial node as current.

3. For current node, consider all its unvisited neighbours and calculate their

distance (from the initial node). For example, if current node (A) hasdistance of 6, and an edge connecting it with another node (B) is 2, the

distance to B through A will be 6+2=8. If this distance is less than the

previously recorded distance (infinity in the beginning, zero for the initial

node), overwrite the distance.

4. When we are done considering all neighbours of the current node, mark it

as visited. A visited node will not be checked ever again; its distance

recorded now is final and minimal.

5. Set the unvisited node with the smallest distance (from the initial node) as

the next "current node" and continue from step 3.

Description of the algorithm

Suppose you're marking over the streets on a street map (tracing the street with a

marker) in a certain order, until you have a route marked in from the starting point

to the destination. The order is conceptually simple: from all the street intersections

of the already marked routes, find the closest unmarked intersection - closest to thestarting point (the "greedy" part). It's the whole marked route to the intersection,

plus the street to the new, unmarked intersection. Mark that street to that

intersection, draw an arrow with the direction, then repeat. Never mark any twointersections twice. When you get to the destination, follow the arrows backwards.There will be only one path back against the arrows, the shortest one.


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BELLman ford Algorithms

DV algorithms are also known as Bellman-Ford routing algorithms and Ford-Fulkerson

routing algorithms. In these algorithms, every router has a routing table that shows it the

best route for any destination. A typical graph and routing table for router J is shown

below.

Destination Weight Line

A 8 A

B 20 A

C 28 I

D 20 H

E 17 I

F 30 I

G 18 H

H 12 H

I 10 I

J 0 ---

K 6 K

L 15 K


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A typical network graph and routing table for router J

As the table shows, if router J wants to get packets to router D, it should send them torouter H. When packets arrive at router H, it checks its own table and decides how tosend the packets to D.

In DV algorithms, each router has to follow these steps:

1. It counts the weight of the links directly connected to it and saves the information to itstable.

2. In a specific period of time, it send its table to its neighbor routers (not to all routers) andreceive the routing table of each of its neighbors.

3. Based on the information in its neighbors' routing tables, it updates its own.One of the most important problems with DV algorithms is called "count to infinity."

Let's examine this problem with an example:

Imagine a network with a graph as shown below. As you see in this graph, there is onlyone link between A and the other parts of the network. Here you can see the graph androuting table of all nodes:

A B C D

A 0,- 1,A 2,B 3,C

B 1,B 0,- 2,C 3,D

C 2,B 1,C 0,- 1,C

D 3,B 2,C 1,D 0,-

Network graph and routing tables

Now imagine that the link between A and B is cut. At this time, B corrects its table. Aftera specific amount of time, routers exchange their tables, and so B receives C's routingtable. Since C doesn't know what has happened to the link between A and B, it saysthat it has a link to A with the weight of 2 (1 for C to B, and 1 for B to A -- it doesn't knowB has no link to A). B receives this table and thinks there is a separate link between C


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and A, so it corrects its table and changes infinity to 3 (1 for B to C, and 2 for C to A, asC said). Once again, routers exchange their tables. When C receives B's routing table, itsees that B has changed the weight of its link to A from 1 to 3, so C updates its tableand changes the weight of the link to A to 4 (1 for C to B, and 3 for B to A, as B said).

This process loops until all nodes find out that the weight of link to A is infinity. Thissituation is shown in the table below. In this way, experts say DV algorithms have aslow convergence rate.

B C D

Sum of weight to A after link cut ,A 2,B 3,C

Sum of weight to B after 1st updating 3,C 2,B 3,C

Sum of weight to A after 2nd updating 3,C 4,B 3,C

Sum of weight to A after 3rd updating 5,C 4,B 5,C

Sum of weight to A after 4th updating 5,C 6,B 5,C

Sum of weight to A after 5th updating 7,C 6,B 7,C

Sum of weight to A after nth updating ... ... ...

The "count to infinity" problem

One way to solve this problem is for routers to send information only to the neighborsthat are not exclusive links to the destination. For example, in this case, C shouldn'tsendany information to B about A, because B is the only way to A.


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Q2. To study different type of LAN equipment?

Ans: LAN equipments

For making LAN we may require some or the entire following hardware category.

Along with these are shown the OSI level of these equipments:

1. Transmission media (Physical level)

2. Hub (Physical level)

3. Switches (Data link level)

4. Routers (Network level)

5. Gateways (Application level)

1.Transmission media:

A transmission medium(plural transmission media) is a material substance(solid,liquid,gas, orplasma) that canpropagateenergywaves. For example, thetransmission medium forsound received by the ears is usually air, but solids and liquidsmay also act as transmission media for sound. The term transmission mediumcanalso refer to a technical device that employs the material substance to transmit or guidewaves. Thus, an optical fiber or a copper cable is referred to as a transmission medium.

Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along

a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided Media isalso known as Bound Media. Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the previoussentences and is not meant to be interpreted as copper wire cabling only.

Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel butnothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to a cablingmedia and as such are often called Unbound Media.

2.Hub:

A common connection point fordevices in anetwork. Hubs are commonly used toconnectsegments of aLAN.A hub contains multipleports.When apacket arrives at oneport, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

Apassive hubserves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device(or segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubsinclude additional features thatenables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configureeach port in the hub. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs.
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3.Switch:

A network switchor switching hubis a computer networking device that connectsnetwork

segments.The term commonly refers to a multi-portnetwork bridge that processes and routes

data at thedata link layer (layer 2) of theOSI model.Switches that additionally process data at

thenetwork layer (Layer 3) and above are often referred to as Layer 3 switches ormultilayer

switches.The term network switchdoes not generally encompass unintelligent or passive

network devices such ashubs andrepeaters.

The network switch plays an integral part in most modernEthernetlocal area networks (LANs).

Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linkedmanaged switches.Small office/home

office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purposeconverged

device such as agateway to access small office/homebroadband services such

asDSL or cable internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device contains arouter and

components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may

also include a telephone interface forVoIP.

4. Routers:

A routeris a device that forwardsdata packets acrosscomputer networks. Routers

perform the data "traffic directing" functions on theInternet.A router is amicroprocessor-

controlled device that is connected to two or more data lines from different networks.

When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address

information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in

itsrouting table,it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. A data packet is

typically passed from router to router through the networks of the Internet until it gets to
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its destination computer. Routers also perform other tasks such as translating the data

transmission protocol of the packet to the appropriate protocol of the next network, and

preventing unauthorized access to a network by the use of afirewall.[1]

5.Gateways:

A gateway may contain devices such asprotocol translators,impedance matching devices,

rate converters,fault isolators, orsignaltranslators as necessary to

providesysteminteroperability. It also requires the establishment of mutually acceptable

administrative procedures between both networks.

A protocol translation/mapping gateway interconnects networks with different network

protocol technologies by performing the required protocol conversions.

Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at network layer and above. The jobof a gateway is much more complex than that of arouter orswitch

Q6. To study and configure various type of routersand bridge?

Ans: A router is a device that forwardsdata packets acrosscomputer networks.Routers perform thedata "traffic directing" functions on theInternet. A router is amicroprocessor-controlled device that is

connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the

lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then,

using information in itsrouting table,it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. A data packet

is typically passed from router to router through the networks of the Internet until it gets to its destination

computer. Routers also perform other tasks such as translating the data transmission protocol of the

packet to the appropriate protocol of the next network, and preventing unauthorized access to a network

by the use of afirewall.[1]

Types of Routers

There are several types of routers that you will want to understand. You need to know the

difference so that you can set up your network or at least so that you can understand what

the local computer guy tells you to do.
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1.Broadband Routers

Broadband routers can be used to do several different types of things. They can be used to

connect two different computers or to connect two computers to the Internet. They can also

be used to create a phone connection.

If you are using Voice over IP (VoIP) technology, then you will need a broadband router to

connect your Internet to your phone. These are often a special type of modem that will have

both Ethernet and phone jacks. Although this may seem a little confusing, simply follow the

instructions that your VoIP provider sends with your broadband router - usually you must

purchase the router from the company in order to obtain the service.

2.Wireless Routers

Wireless routers connect to your modem and create a wireless signal in your home or

office. So, any computer within range can connect to your wireless router and use yourbroadband Internet for free. The only way to keep anyone from connecting to your system is

to secure your router.

A word of warning about wireless routers: Be sure your secure them, or you will be

susceptible to hackers and identity thieves. In order to secure your router, you simply need

to come to WhatIsMyIPAddress.com, and get your IP address. Then, you'll type that into

your web browser and log into your router (the user ID and password will come with your

router).

Types of bridges

There are six main types of bridges:beam bridges,cantilever bridges,arch bridges,suspension

bridges,cable-stayed bridges.
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1.Beam bridges

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by abutments, hence their structural name

ofsimply supported.When there is more than one span the intermediate supports are known as piers.

The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In

modern times, beam bridges are large box steel girder bridges. Weight on top of the beam pushes

straight down on the abutments at either end of the bridge.[11]

They are made up mostly of wood or metal.

Beam bridges typically do not exceed 250 feet (76 m) long. The longer the bridge, the weaker. The

world's longest beam bridge isLake Pontchartrain Causeway in southernLouisiana in the United States,

at 23.83 miles (38.35 km), with individual spans of 56 feet (17 m).[12]

2.Cantilever bridges

Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevershorizontal beams that are supported on only one end. Most

cantilever bridges use a pair ofcontinuous spans extending from opposite sides of the supporting piers,

meeting at the center of the obstacle to be crossed. Cantilever bridges are constructed using much the

same materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in the action of the forces through

the bridge. The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre (1,801 ft)Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada.

3.Arch bridges

Arch bridges haveabutments at each end. The earliest known arch bridges were built

by the Greeks and include theArkadiko Bridge.The weight of the bridge is thrust into

theabutments at either side.Dubai in theUnited Arab Emiratesis currently building

theSheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing which is scheduled for completion in 2012. When completed, it will

be the largest arch bridge in the world.[13]

4.Suspension bridges

Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or

vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached

to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a lake or river.

The longest suspension bridge in the world is the 12,826 feet (3,909 m)Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in

Japan.[14]

Seesimple suspension bridge,stressed ribbon bridge,underspanned suspension

bridge,suspended-deck suspension bridge,andself-anchored suspension bridge.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simply_supportedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simply_supportedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simply_supportedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_pierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-beambridge-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-beambridge-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-beambridge-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Pontchartrain_Causewayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantilever_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_spanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abutmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkadiko_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abutmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Rashid_bin_Saeed_Crossinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-dubai-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-dubai-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-dubai-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashi_Kaikyo_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-suspension-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-suspension-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-suspension-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressed_ribbon_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underspanned_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underspanned_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspended-deck_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-anchored_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-anchored_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspended-deck_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underspanned_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underspanned_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressed_ribbon_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-suspension-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akashi_Kaikyo_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-dubai-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikh_Rashid_bin_Saeed_Crossinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abutmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkadiko_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abutmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_spanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantilever_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Pontchartrain_Causewayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-beambridge-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_pierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simply_supportedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_bridge


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5.Cable-stayed bridges

Cable-stayed bridges,like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However, in a cable-stayed bridge,

less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately shorter.

[15]

The first knowncable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher.

[16]The longest cable-stayed bridge is

theSutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in China.

Q7:implement various routing protocol algorithms?

Distance vector routing algo:#include

#include

int graph[12][12];

int e[12][12];

int ad[12];

int no,id,adc,small,chosen;

char nodes[12]={a b c d e f g h i j k l};

int main()

{

int i,j,k,ch1,ch2=0;

adc=0;

printf("enter the no nodes");

scanf("%d",&no);

printf("enter the value for adjacency matrix");
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-cable-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-cable-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-cable-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-loescher-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-loescher-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-loescher-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutong_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutong_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-loescher-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge#cite_note-cable-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable-stayed_bridge


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for(i=0;i


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adc++;

printf("%c",nodes[i]);

}

}

for(i=0;i


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while(ch2==1);

return 0;#include#include

int graph[12][12];

int e[12][12];

int ad[12];

int no,id,adc,small,chosen;

char nodes[12]={a b c d e f g h i j k l};

int main()

{

int i,j,k,ch1,ch2=0;

adc=0;

printf("enter the no nodes");scanf("%d",&no);

printf("enter the value for adjacency matrix");

for(i=0;i


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printf("2.estimated table\n ");

scanf("%d",&ch1);

switch(ch1)

{

case 1:

printf("\n which node should routing table be built(1-a)(2-b)...");

scanf("%d",&id);

id--;

adc=0;

printf("neighbours for particular node");

for(i=0;i


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} else

e[id][i]=0;

}

break;

case 2:

printf("\n");

for(i=0;i


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for(i=0;i


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int e;/* the number of edges */

Edge edges[1024];/* large enough for n


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int i,j;

int w;

FILE *fin =fopen("dist.txt","r");

fscanf(fin,"%d",&n);

e =0;

for(i =0;i


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Q8. Study and implemantation of VOI P concept?

Ans: Voice over Internet Protocol(Voice over IP, VoIP) is one of a family of internet

technologies,communication protocols, and transmission technologies for delivery ofvoice

communications andmultimedia sessions overInternet Protocol (IP) networks, such as theInternet.

Other terms frequently encountered and often used synonymously with VoIP are IP telephony, Internet

telephony, voice over broadband(VoBB),broadband telephony, and broadband phone.

Internet telephony refers to communications servicesvoice,fax,SMS, and/or voice-messaging

applicationsthat are transported via the Internet, rather than thepublic switched telephone

network (PSTN). The steps involved in originating a VoIP telephone call are signaling and media channel

setup, digitization of the analog voice signal, encoding, packetization, and transmission as Internet

Protocol (IP) packets over a packet-switched network. On the receiving side, similar steps (usually in the

reverse order) such as reception of the IP packets, decoding of the packets and digital-to-analog

conversion reproduce the original voice stream.[1]

VoIP systems employ session control protocols to control the set-up and tear-down of calls as well

asaudio codecs which encode speech allowing transmission over an IP network asdigital audio via

anaudio stream.The codec used is varied between different implementations of VoIP (and often a range

of co

decs are used); some implementations rely onnarrowband andcompressed speech, while others

supporthigh fidelitystereo codecs.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_codechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrowbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_codinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_fidelityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereophonic_soundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_fidelityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_codinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrowbandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_codechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocol


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There are three types of VoIP tools that are commonly used; IP Phones,Software VoIP and Mobile and

Integrated VoIP. The IP Phones are the most institutionally established but still the least obvious of the

VoIP tools. Of all the software VoIP tools that exist,Skype is probably the most easily identifiable. The

use of software VoIP has increased during the global recession as many persons, looking for ways to cut

costs have turned to these tools for free or inexpensive calling orvideo conferencing applications.

Software VoIP can be further broken down into three classes or subcategories; Web Calling, Voice and

Video Instant Messaging and Web Conferencing. Mobile and Integrated VoIP is just another example of

the adaptability of VoIP. VoIP is available on many smartphones and internet devices so even the users

of portable devices that are not phones can still make calls or send SMS text messages over 3G or

WIFI.[2]

H.323

IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)

Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)

Session Description Protocol (SDP)

The H.323 protocol was one of the first VoIP protocols that found

widespread implementation for long-distance traffic, as well as local area

network services. However, since the development of newer, less

complex protocols, such as MGCP and SIP, H.323 deployments are

increasingly limited to carrying existing long-haul network traffic. In

particular, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) has gained widespread

VoIP market penetration.

A notable proprietary implementation is theSkype protocol, which is in

part based on the principles ofPeer-to-Peer (P2P) networking.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_conferencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-EBSCOhost-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-EBSCOhost-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-EBSCOhost-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.323http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Multimedia_Subsystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Gateway_Control_Protocol_(MGCP)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_Transport_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Description_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-Peerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-Peerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype_protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Description_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_Transport_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Gateway_Control_Protocol_(MGCP)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Multimedia_Subsystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.323http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP#cite_note-EBSCOhost-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_conferencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype


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Q10 Write down the 2 cryptography algo and comparison

b/w them?opAns: RSA:

#include< stdio.h>

#include< conio.h>

int phi,M,n,e,d,C,FLAG;

int check()

{

int i;

for(i=3;e%i==0 && phi%i==0;i+2)

{

FLAG = 1;

return;

}

FLAG = 0;

}

void encrypt()

{

int i;

C = 1;

for(i=0;i< e;i++)C=C*M%n;

C = C%n;

printf("\n\tEncrypted keyword : %d",C);

}

void decrypt()

{

int i;

M = 1;

for(i=0;i< d;i++)

M=M*C%n;

M = M%n;

printf("\n\tDecrypted keyword : %d",M);

}

void main()


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{

int p,q,s;

clrscr();

printf("Enter Two Relatively Prime Numbers\t: ");

scanf("%d%d",&p;,&q;);

n = p*q;

phi=(p-1)*(q-1);

printf("\n\tF(n)\t= %d",phi);

do

{

printf("\n\nEnter e\t: ");

scanf("%d",&e;);

check();

}while(FLAG==1);

d = 1;do

{

s = (d*e)%phi;

d++;

}while(s!=1);

d = d-1;

printf("\n\tPublic Key\t: d,%d}",e,n);

printf("\n\tPrivate Key\t: d,%d}",d,n);

printf("\n\nEnter The Plain Text\t: ");

scanf("%d",&M;);

encrypt();

printf("\n\nEnter the Cipher text\t: ");

scanf("%d",&C;);

decrypt();

getch();

}


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Case Study of Various Routing Algorithm

Documents

Transcript of Case Study of Various Routing Algorithm