1

Implementation of Realism in Case Study Research Methodology

Authors

Michael Christie Pat Rowe Chad Perry John Chamard

Queensland University

of Technology

University of

Queensland

University of Southern

Queensland

St. Marys University

Brisbane, 4000

Australia

St. Lucia, 4067

Australia

Toowoomba, Australia Halifax, Nova Scottia,

Canada

+61 (7) 3864-2896

(tel.)

+61 (7) 3365-6882

(tel.)

+61 (7) 3864-1313

(fax)

+61 (7) 3365-6988

(fax)

m.christie@qut.edu.au p.rowe@gsm.uq.edu.au perry@usq.edu.au mainbrac@fox.nstn.ca

International Council for Small Business, Annual Conference, Brisbane, 2000

2

Abstract

There is a significant gap in the understanding of internal management operations within

regional development boards. The deficiency has implications for research methods in

this area. The current debate on realism in case study research has examined the selection

of an appropriate research methodology. The circumstances to be researched (Eisenhardt

1989; Glasser & Strauss 1967; Yin 1989) and the theoretical paradigm adopted by the

researcher (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Layder 1993; Outhwaite 1983) determine the research

methodology in case study research. This paper builds on contributions to this debate by

Perry, Alizadeh and Riege (1997) and Perry (1998) that describe the circumstances and

paradigm that best argue for the use of case study method. Further, this paper adds to this

debate and sets out an example of a case study approach for the analysis of the qualitative

data to ensure methodological rigor. In turn, it outlines outlines an approach for the

analysis of qualitative data through multi-level analysis.

Keywords: qualitative research, case study, theoretical paradigm, methodology, multi-

level analysis

3

Introduction

There is no consensus about the best theoretical approach to be used to study a regional

development board’s (RDB) perception and execution of management processes and

roles. Regional development studies are at an early stage of development regarding the

internal management operations of a RDB (Anderson 1990; Blakely 1994; Hayton 1989;

Hodgkinson 1993; Lazerson 1988). This paper’s summary of a comprehensive analysis of

the literature identifies a significant gap in the understanding of a RDB. The deficiency

has implications for research methods in this area. In brief, this paper’s aims are twofold.

First, it contribute to our understanding of RDB’s. Secondly, it examines an appropriate

research method for building a causal explanation of the execution of management

processes and roles.

The regional development studies literature on boards

Historically, Australian governments have relied on macro- and micro-economic policies

to solve regional problems. In contrast, Canada and the United Kingdom have faced the

economic disparity between regions by relying not only on macro- and micro-economic

policies to support regional problems but also by implementing regional development

policies (Higgins & Savoie 1995; Yuill et al. 1980).

Australian focus for singular reliance on these macro- and micro- economic policies

results in successive governments dealing with regional development through a series of

superficial initiatives (Higgins & Savoie 1995). Consequently, governments have not

dealt in any depth with the many troubled sectors, industries or businesses in specific

regions. Therefore there have been ‘quite dramatic structural and spatial shifts in

Australian society’ (Maher 1993, pp. 28). The consequence of this fragmented approach

is that management expertise in a regional development board (RDB) has been under

resourced (Higgins & Savoie 1995). A RDB provides a means to deal with the complexity

of economic development and to coordinate activities across different types of

stakeholder groups. A RDB that can mobilise support within its regional community and

4

develop successful networks requires a high range of management expertise, though not

all achieve this (Blakely 1994; Danson et al. 1989).

Internal management expertise within a RDB at the board level is of particular

importance in this post-Fordist period (Amin & Thrift 1994) which can be characterised

as a period of economic history during which large public and private bureaucracies are

consolidating (Amin & Thrift 1994; Cooke & Morgan 1994). Specifically, public

bureaucracies operate with diminished resources, limiting their direct capability for

immediate involvement in regions. Moreover, large private bureaucracies (large

corporations) are contracting from regional locations within Western economies, thus

diminishing regional resources, and reducing employment.

Examples of the contraction of private bureaucracies can be found in ‘rust belts’ (Allen

1989; Hansen et al. 1990), decay of urban areas (Haubermann & Siebel 1990; Keating

1993) and the rationalisation of the welfare state (Pierson 1991; Saul 1996; Shapiro 1990;

Tower 1995) in Australia, North America and Europe. In contrast, the advance of

regional economies is occurring 'in regions like Silicon Valley and northern Italy' (Amin

& Thrift 1994; Weinstein et al. 1985). In these examples of the retreat or expansion of

regions, there is an increased complexity in the management of regional economic

development and public bureaucracies are operating with diminished resources. As a

consequence, a RDB provides through devolution by central government an alternate

structural mechanism. This alternate structural mechanism of a RDB allows for greater

regionally controlled partnering and coordination of complex regional economic

development issues (Cox & Mair 1988; Department of Industry, Science and Technology

1995; Dicken & Tickell 1992; Hassink 1999). This research of RDBs in Queensland

provides for comparison of different types of partnering and coordination of regional

economic development activities.

The changing roles of public and private bureaucracies in regions may provide an

opportunity for a RDB. Therefore, it is important to understand how a RDB perceives and

executes management processes and roles with specific reference to filling this gap. The

5

research problem is: How does an RDB perceive and execute management processes and

roles?

The deficiency in understanding raised by this research problem has implications for

research methods in this area. An appropriate research method for building a causal

explanation of the execution of management processes and roles is now introduced.

Selection of a theoretical paradigm

A theoretical paradigm is the identification of the underlying basis that is used to

construct a scientific investigation. That is, it is “a loose collection of logically held-

together assumptions, concepts, and propositions that orientates thinking and research”

(Bogdan & Biklan 1982, p. 30). Likewise, a paradigm can be defined as the “basic belief

system or world view that guides the investigation” (Guba & Lincoln 1994, p. 105).

Below we discuss four different paradigms and locate case studies as a research

methodology within one of them (Bhaskar 1978; Gabriel 1990; Guba & Lincoln 1994;

Hunt 1992; Perry et al. 1997; Riege 1997). The discussion focuses on limitations of each

paradigm for the current study on RDB’s.

Positivism: The positivist paradigm does not fit well with the research problem at the

heart of this work. A positivist paradigm may create problems if respondents are

considered to be autonomous objects for this ‘ignores their ability to reflect on problem

situations, and act upon this’ (Robson 1993, pp. 60). Positivism deems that natural and

social sciences measure autonomous facts about an individual perception of reality

(Gabriel 1990). This reality is composed of discrete elements whose character can be

recognized and classified (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Hirschman 1986, Tsoukas 1989). The

primary mode of the research inquiry of positivism is theory-testing based on deduction

(Layder 1993). The use of this hypothetico-deduction allows for statistical generalisation

to be tested, with replaceable findings being true (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Tsoukas 1989).

The principal data collection techniques include experiments and sample surveys that are

outcome-oriented and assume natural laws and mechanisms. Data collection for

positivism is carried out with the researcher being remote from the phenomena under

6

investigation. That is, the researcher operates in a one-way positivism and she/he is the

discoverer of truth is of an undeniable character (Anderson 1986).

In contrast to the positivist paradigm, the three other paradigms are more suitable for

exploring complex social phenomena that require working with people and real life

experiences and where the researcher seeks to understand the research problem by

reflecting, probing, understanding and revising meanings, structures and issues

(Hirschman 1986; Orlikowski & Baroudi 1991). In other words, not all research issues

allow an entirely value-free, one-way mirror between phenomena and the researcher.

This investigation of a RDB is an examination of stakeholders’ perceptions of the

execution of a board’s internal operations.

Thus this investigation of a RDB does not seek to identify causal relationships as a

positivist would but instead considers the complex nature of the research problem. The

researcher seeks to understand the research problem by reflecting, probing, understanding

and revising meanings, structures and issues of the managerial experiences of a RDB.

How the research problems appeared to the stakeholders of a RDB may not necessarily

be captured by positivist research methods (Hirschman 1986; Orlikowski & Baroudi

1991). In other words, to build an entirely value-free, one-way mirror between

phenomena and the researcher is not possible in this research.

Critical theory: The RDB study is interested in understanding how RDB members go

about executing their management processes and roles, not in ‘liberating’ them from

inappropriate mind sets. In contrast, the critical theory paradigm is perhaps most

appropriate when the study is attempting to intervene in the transformation of the

respondents from their mental, emotional and social structures (Guba & Lincoln 1994).

That is, in ‘liberating’ them from inappropriate mind sets. Critical theory assumes

comprehensible social realities that incorporate structures over time. Critical theory

researchers critique and transform social, political, economic, ethnic, and gender values.

Research inquiries can entail long-term ethnographic and historical research of

organizational processes and structures. Critical theory accepts that there are multiple

7

social realities, which are constructed by groups involved in the research. Thus, truth is

only known within a particular social group’s constructed reality (Easton 1982).

Constructivism: The RDB study assumes that respondent perception of actions and

activities is a reality. In contrast, constructivism provides a methodology for

investigating the beliefs of individual respondents rather than investigating an external

reality, such as the tangible and comprehensible economic and technological dimensions

of management (Hunt 1991). Thus within the constructivist paradigm, perception by

itself is not reality, for reality is a blend of perceptions and external reality. Perceptions

are important for they assist in examining complex reality, but perceptions or multiple

realities cannot be the focus of constructivist research. Similar to critical theory,

constructivism is interested in the values which are beneath the findings. Thus it uses

inductive methods. The inductive methods of constructivism require the researcher to be

a ‘passionate participant’ (Guba & Lincoln 1994, p. 112) during the fieldwork. Like

critical theory, the data depends on the interaction between the interviewer and

respondent (Anderson 1986). Both critical theory and constructivism require the

researcher to be subjective to develop knowledge in this interaction (Anderson 1986,

Guba & Lincoln 1994).

In contrast, researchers of a phenomenon like the execution of the internal operations of

an RDB require a paradigm that can deal with multiple realities, that has the elements of

both positivism and constructivism (Perry et al. 1997). This paradigm is realism, also

known as critical realism (Hunt 1991), postpositivism (Denzin & Lincoln 1994; Guba &

Lincoln 1994) or neo-postpositivism (Huberman & Miles 1985; Manicas & Secord

1983).

Realism: The fourth paradigm, realism, has elements of both positivism and

constructivism (Perry et al. 1997). This paradigm, is also known as critical realism (Hunt

1991) or postpositivism (Denzin & Lincoln 1994; Guba & Lincoln 1994) or neo-

postpositivism (Huberman & Miles 1985; Manicas & Secord 1982). Realism provides a

world view in which an actual social phenomenon can be ascertained even though it is

imperfect and probabilistically comprehendible (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Merriam 1988;

8

Perry & Coote 1994; Perry et al. 1997; Tsoukas 1989). That is, for realists the means to

determine the reality of a social phenomenon is through the triangulation of cognition

processes. Indeed, 'a perception for realists is a window on to reality from which a picture

of reality can be triangulated with other perceptions' (Perry et al. 1997, p. 554).

This investigation examines a RDB as a social phenomena through the realism's

triangulation of perceptions.

Bhaskar (1978) argued that realism interprets the world, that is, mechanisms, events and

experiences, in three domains of reality as shown in Table 1. The domains are: first, the

real domain that consists of the processes that produce events, in which generative

mechanisms or causal powers exist independently with a tendency to produce patterns of

observable events under contingent conditions. Next is the actual domain, in which

patterns of events occur, whether they are observed or not. Finally, there is the empirical

domain, in which experiences can be obtained by direct observation (Bhaskar 1978;

Outhwaite 1983; Tsoukas 1989).

Table 1 Onotological assumptions of realism

Real domain Actual domain Empirical domain

Mechanisms Events Experiences

Source: adapted from Bhaskar 1978 p. 13

Within this framework, the discovery of observable and non-observable structures and

mechanisms, independent of the events they generate, is the goal of realism research

(Outhwaite 1983; Tsoukas 1989). In other words, realism researchers observe the

empirical domain to discover by a ‘mixture of theoretical reasoning and experimentation’

(Outhwaite 1983 p. 332) a knowledge of the real world, by naming and describing the

generative mechanisms that operate in the world and result in the events that may be

observed. Given this complexity of the social science world, reality ‘is considered real

but fallible’ (Wollin 1995 p. 80).

9

The purpose of this investigation of an RDB is to discover, identify, describe and analyse

the variables of the structures and generative mechanisms of a board’s internal

operations. The goal of this investigation is the development of idiographic knowledge

affixed to natural and social science experience (Outhwaite 1987) so as to comprehend

the deeper structures and meanings of the internal management operations of an RDB.

The philosophical assumptions that support these theoretical paradigms relate to

ontology, epistemology and methodology, which are summarized in Table 2. Ontology is

the essential assumptions that are made regarding the basic elements of reality (Parkhe

1993), that is, the configuration and character of reality (Guba & Lincoln 1994). If

ontology deals with reality, epistemology examines the character and basis of knowledge

or the characteristics of the relationship between reality and the researcher (Parkhe 1993).

Methodology is the procedure carried out by a researcher to explore that reality (Guba &

Lincoln 1994; Parkhe 1993).

Table 2 Basic belief systems of alternative inquiry paradigms Item Positivism Critical theory Constructivism Realism Ontology naïve realism:

reality is‘real’ and apprehensible

historical realism: ‘virtual’ reality shaped by social economic, ethnic political, cultural and gender values, crystallized over time

critical relativism: multiple local and specific ‘constructed’ realities

Critical realism: reality is ‘real’but only imperfectly and probablistically apprehensibe and so triangulation from many sources is required to know it

Epistemology objectivist: findings true

subjectivist: value mediated findings

subjectivist: findings created

modified objectivist: findings probably true with awareness of values between them

Common methodologies

experiments/ surveys: verification of hypothesis; chiefly quantitative methods

dialogic/ dialectical: researcher is a transformative intellectual’ who changes the social world within which participants live

hermeunetical/ dialectical: researcher is a ‘passionate participant’ with the world being investigated

Case studies/ convergent interviewing: triangulation, interpretation of research issues by qualitative and/or quantitative methods (such as structural equation modelling)

Source: based on Guba & Lincoln (1994), Riege (1997)

Research Circumstances

10

The realist research methodology of qualitative case studies is process orientated and

does not deal with cause and effect relations, but with underlying causal tendencies

(Bhaskar 1978; Tsoukas 1989). Consequently, data analysis for realism is usually

summarised in a manner that is necessarily value-laden because it cannot be a process

that minimises bias with proximity of those values. If the purpose of a piece of research is

to discover, identify, describe and analyze the variables of a complex social situation, if

the goal of an investigation is the development of idiographic knowledge affixed to

natural and social science experience, a realism methodology may be most appropriate

(Outhwaite 1983).

A second situation in which realism is a more appropriate paradigm is when the area of

investigation is pre-paradigmatic in nature. Realism attempts to define and predict social

phenomena through idiographic research that is relevant when a phenomenon has not

been fully discovered and comprehended. For example, case study research may lead to a

more informed basis for theory development (Bonoma 1985; Eisenhardt 1989; Yin 1989)

in a newly developing area of research. The early stages of development or

preparadigmatic, are when the researcher’s interests, phenomena requirements and/or

existing theory seems inadequate and when these types of circumstances decree theory

building rather than theory testing (Bonoma 1985; Deshpande 1983; Eisenhardt 1989;

Gilmore & Carson 1996). A case study strategy provides data for building theory

(Glasser & Strauss 1967) that contributes to existing knowledge by analysis from another

perspective using the self as a research instrument. Model building is the logical stage in

scientific discovery when it is critical to illuminate and raise the possibility of new

perceptions (Bhaskar 1978).

In general, within the realism paradigm, a case study methodology should be chosen

when:

(i) There are particular events that are focused on a situation or context and have

specificity (particularistic) (Eisenhardt 1989; Merriam 1988);

(ii) The social organisational settings are intricate (Kaplan 1986; Morgan & Smircich

1980; Orlikowski & Baroudi 1991; Parkhe 1993);

11

(iii) The researcher seeks contextual meaning within a bounded system (Bonoma

1985; Stake 1978; Yin 1989); and

(iv) The research enterprise is inductive theory building (Gilmore & Carson 1996;

Hirschman 1986; Merriam 1988).

Particular events that are focused on a situation or context: The focus on the richness

and depth of the situation or event of case study methodology allows for the ‘opening up’

of new ideas and the interpretations of the phenomena being researched or new

perceptions. In particular, the case study is appropriate when investigators desire to

define topics broadly and not narrowly (Yin 1993). As little previous research has been

carried out on the execution of management processes and roles by a RDB within their

context, there is a gap in the research examining this situation (Bonoma 1985; Yin 1989).

Intricate social organisational settings: The current deductive theory-testing

nomothetic research methods of positivism do not necessarily sufficiently capture the

intricacy of social organisational settings (Kaplan 1986; Morgan & Smircich 1980;

Parkhe 1993). Case study research deals with these intricacies, processes, roles and

changes of organisation (Marshall & Rossman 1990). Case studies are particularly useful

when the focus of the research is on the relationship between the person [or group] and

the setting, so that it is significant to detach one from the other (Foster 1991). This

investigation deals with a RDB in a dynamic organisational setting that deals with the

action of a group of managers in their management of processes and roles. In brief, case

studies are particularly useful when the focus of the research is on the relationship

between the person [or group] and the setting, so that it is significant to detach one from

the other (Weick 1968) as is the case in this investigation.

Contextual meaning within a bounded system: This provides a way to understand the

‘bounded system’ in its own habitat (Stake 1978). Case study research reveals a particular

event in a real life context (Eisenhardt 1989; Merriam 1988). The examination of a

particular event is significant when boundaries between phenomenon and context are not

clear (Yin 1981). Examination of a particular event has the additional advantage of

examining a contemporary phenomenon that has a real life context (Yin 1981).

12

Qualitative case study research establishes a research area for clarifying greater insight

into boundaries and phenomena while empirical research requires experimental data

(Emory & Cooper 1991; Yin 1989). In this investigation, the focus is on the influence of

[p--a particular bounded contemporary event in the management execution of an RDB’s

internal operations. The context of this investigation is that Queensland RDBs differ from

other types of regional boards in Australia in that the state government does not make

appointments. Rather, appointments to a RDB involve a range of regional stakeholders

through a combination of elections and local government appointments. Qualitative case

study research establishes a research area for clarifying greater insight into boundaries

and phenomena while empirical research requires survey research/quasi-experimental

data (Emory & Cooper 1991; Yin 1989).

Inductive theory building: The final factor of the research situation is the understanding

that emerges from the data and the impression (inductive) that is provided through a rich

description of a management situation (Bononma 1985; Merriam 1988). On the one hand,

deduction attempts to identify causal construction of the managerial experience. In

contrast, case study research attempts to understand the nature of the research problem,

reflecting, forming and revising meanings and structures of the phenomena being studied.

Thus, the case method is well suited for inductively building a rich, deep understanding

of new phenomena. In this research, the case study method provided a rich analysis of

the dynamics present in the execution of management processes and roles on a RDB for

theory building based on prior theory.

A three-stage research process was undertaken, as shown in figure 1. The stages

concerned the development of prior theory and a literature review that identified an initial

research problem. In addition, issues were further refined through three pilot case studies

(Nair & Riege 1995; Robson 1993). Stage two concerned the main data collection and

stage three the final theory development. This activity recognises the importance of prior

theory to the research design (Miles & Huberman 1994; Neuman 1994; Perry & Coote

1994; Yin 1993).

13

Figure 1

Research methodology in the development and confirmation of the conceptual framework for an RDB’s execution of management processes and roles

Source: developed for this research

In brief, this case study investigation was based on a well-defined methodology to

provide the means to scientifically answer these broader questions. Prior theory

contributes in this investigation by the provision of a foundation and a means to refine the

conceptual framework collection (Lincoln & Guba 1985; Miles & Huberman 1984; Yin

1993). Additionally, prior theory in this investigation focused the literature review and

assisted in developing the research issues and interview schedule, along with a suitable

research design and system of data collection (Lincoln & Guba 1985; Miles & Huberman

1984; Yin 1993).

Definition of case study research

Case study is a research methodology that focuses on understanding the dynamics present

in a management situation (Eisenhardt 1989). There are many definitions of case research

and these definitions encompass a wide range of definitional components. These are

shown in Table 3 to highlight the range of definitions associated with case study research.

Stage I: Literature review and pilotstudies - Development

• research problem• research issues• research variables• conceptual framework• interview questions

Stage II: Case studies andevaluation

• case analysis• cross-case analysis• aggregate analysis• confirmation of conceptual

framework• peer evaluation by

international experts

Stage III: Building• theory construction• future testing ofresearch findings

• model for theexecution ofmanagement processesand roles of RDBs

14

Table 3

Definitions for case study research Author

/Definition

Hakim

1994

King

1985

McKin--

ney 1966

Patton

1990

Saunders

1981

Smith

1988

Stake

1985

Yin 1989

Holistic X X X

Absence of control X

Rare phenomena X

Sources of ideas X

Sources of hypotheses X

Situation of theory development X X

Future systematic research X X

Boundaries between phenomena and

context are not clearly defined

X X

Contemporary focus within a real life

context

X X X

How and why questions X X

Little control over events X X

Dependent on inductive reasoning X

Use of multiplicity of data X X X

Are specific X

Cannot be standardised X

Are descriptive, qualitative,

exploratory and explanatory

X X X X

Have a heuristic value X

Empirical enquiry X

Multiple sources of evidence are used X

Embedded case studies were sub units

of analysis

X

Unit chosen was temporally and

spatially bound

X

Intensive examination of specific

factors

X

Particular historical development X

Unique configuration of being X X

Bounded system X

Source: developed from Hakim (1994); King (1985); McKinney (1966); Patton (1990);

Sanders (1981); Smith (1988); Stake (1995); Yin (1989).

15

Applying the Case Method

Beer (1988, p.168) argued that qualitative research is well suited to asking the broader

questions of science, unlike ‘normal science, which attempts to answer little questions

precisely. Instead we should do broader ... studies which answer more questions less

precisely’. Qualitative research based on a well defined methodology can provide the

means to scientifically answer these broader questions that provide for new insight. The

following are suggestions for carrying out case study research in a methodologically

sound way.

Identification of Prior Theory: Prior theory in the area of research interest should be

identified through a literature review. The outcome of the review should be an initial

statement of the research problem and issues that might be further refined through pilot

case studies (Nair & Riege 1995; Robson 1993). This approach recognises the

importance of prior theory to the research design (Lincoln & Guba 1985, Miles &

Huberman 1994; Neuman 1994; Perry & Coote 1994; Yin 1994).

Single vs multiple case study research: Single case study research is applicable when

the case is:

• critical or unique or where the researcher is able to access a previously remote

phenomenon;

• critical for testing a well formulated theory;

• an exploratory study or pilot study; shown to be representative of a large population

(McKinney 1966; Smith 1988; Yin 1989).

Multiple case studies provide a purposive sample and the potential for generalizability of

findings (Miles & Huberman 1994, Patton 1990). Additionally, including multiple sites

increases the scope of the investigation and the degrees of freedom (Bonoma 1985;

Eisenhardt 1989; Miles & Huberman 1984; Parkhe 1993; Patton 1990). Multiple case

studies provide a more rigorous and complete approach than single case study research

due to the triangulation of evidence (Bonoma 1985; Eisenhardt 1989; Herriott &

Firestone 1983; Neuman 1994; Stake 1994; Yin 1994). Additionally, triangulation of data

in the context of multiple case studies provides differing research sites and data sources

16

to satisfy theory generation and verification (Denzin 1978; Deshpande 1983; Patton

1990). Finally, multiple case studies are appropriate as they provide for a rigorous

methodology for replication logic (Parkhe 1993; Tsoukas 1989; Yin 1993).

Multiple case studies provide for theory confirmation through literal and theoretical

replication (Anderson 1986; Bonoma 1985).

Integrity of case study research

This section examines the integrity of case study research in terms of validity and

reliability. Careful design can avoid or at least reduce the criticisms directed at case study

research for the lack of methodological rigour and possibility of bias (Billingsley & Poole

1986; Patton 1990; Smith 1988, Yin 1989). In dealing with these criticisms, case study

researchers have Developed a number of different approaches for increasing the integrity

of qualitative research (Reige & Nair 1996). Tests for validity have overlaps in meaning,

as do tests for reliability. These approaches tend to have similar meaning though differing

in the terminology of the tests used to determine the integrity of case study research. Case

study research can achieve integrity or rigour of validity through five approaches:

construct validity; confirmability; internal validity/credibility; external

validity/transferability and finally, reliability/dependability (Miles & Huberman 1994;

Yin 1989).

Construct validity: First, construct validity ensures adequate operational measures for

the concepts under investigation (Emory & Cooper 1991, McDaniel & Gates 1991). That

is, it “testifies to how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories

around which the test is designed” (Sekaran 1992, p. 173). Case study research can

achieve construct validity by developing its constructs through a literature review, use of

multiple sources of evidence, establishing a chain of evidence, and having key external

informants review draft case study reports. Multiple sources or triangulation of evidence

is also recommended as a technique for construct validity by such researchers as Burgess

(1984), Denzin (1978), Jorgensen (1989), Marshall and Rossman (1990), and Patton

(1990). Triangulation allows for a stronger substantiation of constructs and hypotheses

that assists in generalisability of the research findings (Bonoma 1985). Also, a study

17

protocol or interview guide can be developed to provide for a systematic process in the

interviews (Yin 1994). The subjectivity inherent in the case study method can be reduced

through prudent selection of the case study interviewees, a structured interview process,

and a structured process for recording, transcribing and interpreting the data (Dick 1990;

Lincoln & Guba 1985). Thus, a chain of evidence can be established from the beginning

of the research questions through data collection to the final conclusions (Yin 1994).

Confirmability: Confirmability is defined as ability of others to satisfy themselves that

the research was carried out in the way it is described by the researcher (Lincoln & Guba

1985; Miles & Huberman 1994; Riege & Nair 1996). The basic technique for ensuring

confirmability is developing a record of data collected (such as recorded cassette tapes,

transcriptions, interview notes, secondary sources) to allow other researchers to observe a

chain of evidence. This audit trail would allow an external observer to trace the logical

progression of reasoning from the evidence presented to the conclusions drawn. In

addition, opportunities might be provided for key informants to review draft case study

reports and the findings of the research (Miles & Huberman 1994; Yin 1994).

Internal validity/credibility: Internal validity/credibility in quantitative research is

defined as the identification of causal relationships whereby certain variables may

influence other variables in the research study (Emory & Cooper 1991; McDaniel &

Gates 1991; Miles & Huberman 1994; Zikmund 1991). In contrast, qualitative research

does not necessarily deal with cause and effect relationships of independent and

dependent variables but rather with establishing a phenomenon in a credible manner, that

is ‘generative mechanisms’ or ‘causal powers’ (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Miles &

Huberman 1994; Tsoukas 1989; Yin 1993). That is, case study research aims to locate

generative mechanisms that assist in determining inferences about real-life experiences

(Bhaskar 1978; Merriam 1988; Sykes 1990 and 1991, Tsoukas 1989).

In case study research, internal validity/credibility can be established by the use of case

analysis, cross case analysis, pattern matching, assurance of internal coherence of

findings, expert peer review, and the development of diagrams, illustration and data

matrices to demonstrate the internal consistency of the information collected. Further

18

activities to demonstrate internal validity include precisely distinguishing the unit of

analysis, linking of the analysis to prior theory identified in a literature review, and

presentation and analysis of pilot case studies (Yin 1993).

Parallel to internal validity, the techniques for credibility in the case method include

triangulation, peer debriefing, discussion of the results and conclusions with other

academic researchers (Lincoln and Guba 1985; Hirschman 1986), and making clear the

researchers’ assumptions about his world view and his theoretical orientation (Merriam

1988). Other techniques include prolonged engagement (multiple contacts) by the

researcher with the respondents.

External validity/transferability: External validity/transferability is defined as the

scope to which the research findings can be replicated beyond the proximate research

case studies or generalizability (Emory & Cooper 1991; Lincoln & Guba 1985; McDaniel

& Gates 1991; Miles & Huberman 1994; Yin 1989). Positivist research carries out

statistical generalisation (Eisenhardt 1989; Miles & Huberman 1984; Yin 1994). In

contrast, case study research carries out analytical generalization in which particular

findings are generalized into a broader theory (Perry et al. 1997); Tsoukas 1989; Yin

1994). This can be achieved through the use of a multiple case studies methodology and

by comparison of evidence (Lincoln & Guba 1985; Miles & Huberman 1984). Multiple

case studies can be used to develop analytic generalization through replication logic

and/or corroboration of findings to achieve external validity (Eisenhardt 1989; Parkhe

1993; Yin 1994). Other techniques that can be used include ‘thick’ descriptions for a case

study data base, cross-cluster and cross-case analysis, intended interview protocol, and

the use of procedures for coding and analysis (Lincoln & Guba 1985; Miles & Huberman

1994).

Reliability/dependability: Finally, the test of reliability/dependability deals with the

ability of other researchers to carry out the same study and achieve similar results

(Cassell & Symon 1994; Emory & Cooper 1991; King et al. 1994; McDaniel & Gates

1991; Miles & Huberman 1994; Singleton et al. 1993). Reliability in realism research is

based on the assumption that there is a single reality which is studied repeatedly

19

(Merriam 1988). However, data in qualitative research on the same real life situation can

be collected by different researchers, who use differing methods, and at different times.

Hence the different data sets may not come together into one conforming picture

(Neuman 1994). Therefore, to achieve reliability/dependability in case study research

demands the enactment of case study procedures so as to identify a documentation trail.

The approved case study techniques for reliability tests are to establish the case study

protocol during data collection, the execution of an interview protocol and the

establishment of a case study data base (Eisenhardt 1989; Merriam 1988; Parkhe 1993).

Finally, formation of a case study data base allows for other researchers to access the files

(Yin 1994). These techniques of reliability increase the general integrity of case study

research, but reliability still may be limited by the creativity of the researcher. For

‘creativity makes confirmability path dependent and irreversible’ (Wollin 1995 p. 27 ).

Employing the techniques noted above for improving dependability provides for greater

cohesion of explanation. This results in a more dependable understanding of the nature of

the phenomenon under investigation (Hirschman 1986).

Developing a Research Plan

The research plan is the overall program of research being undertaken, and involves the

procedures the researcher will carry out for the study (Emory & Cooper 1991). The

research plan provides procedural sign posts to keep the researcher going in the right

direction.

Some qualitative theoreticians such as (Maykut and Morehouse (1994) and Miles and

Huberman (1994) argue that historically there has been lack of documentation in

qualitative research and techniques and state that, ‘qualitative researchers shared no

cannons, decision rules, algorithms, or even any agreed-upon heuristics to indicate

whether findings were valid and procedures robust’ (Miles and Huberman 1994 p. 262).

In credible case research it is important to document the methodologies and techniques

used in order to demonstrate validity and robustness (Eisenhardt 1989; Miles and

Huberman 1994; Patton 1990; Yin 1989).

20

Example of a case study method

A problem of qualitative research is the complexity of comparative case studies. This

analysis examines the activity of the ten case studies. The research issue addressed the

internal management processes of RDBs. The case method offered in this paper is an

approach in which large volume and complex data can be analyzed systematically.

A call for greater systemization of qualitative data analysis (Miles & Huberman 1994;

Yin 1994) has been addressed by a number of researchers (Pawson & Tilley 1997; Perry

1998). This research builds on the cases and examples provided by these researchers of

the use of multi-level analysis of qualitative data in comparative case study research

(Pettigrew 1990). This section of the paper will focus on how qualitative can be

summated under the realism paradigm (Pawson & Tilley 1997; Perry 1998).

This research proceeded in three stages, as shown in figure 1. Stage one involved the

development of a conceptual framework, where research issues and interview questions

were developed through pilot case studies and attention to the literature. The conceptual

framework deals with the role of board, board structure and management practices based

on the literature review and three pilot case studies (Christie 1999). It provides a

comprehensive and focused basis to analyze the variables explaining the internal

operations of an RDB and these variables. This paper will examine stage two of case

study analysis (Patton 1990; Yin 1989). Confirmation of the conceptual framework and

the relevant research variables is undertaken in stage two, involving case study

interviews. Separate to this paper, in the third and final stage there was theory building to

explain the execution of the internal operations of an RDB.

The conceptual framework for the execution of management processes and roles of a

RDB is a prototype of the research issues and variables. The conceptual framework is the

basis of data collection through face to face interviews developed from pilot case studies

and the literature (Guba & Lincoln 1994; Parkhe 1993; Patton 1990). Data collection was

carried out at 10 RDBs. The selection of these 10 was based on the criteria of the general

analytical framework. Personal interviews were carried out with RDB members, general

managers and essential external stakeholders of the agency concerned. Analysis of these

21

data was achieved through tools and techniques such as data reduction, data matrices,

pattern identification and explanation (Miles & Huberman 1994; Patton 1990; Yin 1989).

The final model developed through the case study method provides a basis upon which to

examine a RDB as a whole. The final model permits the analysis of important events,

decisions and actions of a RDB, and their effect on the execution of management

processes and roles.

22

Analysis of interview data

Analysis of interview data commenced after interview notes and tape recorded interviews

were fully transcribed. First, for each of the 21 variables of the conceptual framework, an

interview question probed the complexity and range of activities. Second, for eight of the

variables a further question probed the perceived importance of the variable for a case

(Perry 1998). Third, the individual Likert scales were totalled to provide a summation of

the frequency of events (Yin 1993).

In the analysis of the data, interviewee's ratings were triangulated with other data

collected by the researcher to settle on a final grading. Throughout the discussion,

quotations are shown in direct quotation marks. Bias has been dealt with through the

triangulation of respondents' comments with other data sources (Yin 1993).

In the analysis of the data, five levels of analysis were carried out to identify patterns

within the data, as graphically represented in figure 2 and shown in table 4. The first three

levels consisted of analysis of individual cases, comparison of cases and then grouping of

cases with similar patterns. The fourth level was a summation of all interview questions

by cases. Level five was a set analysis of the comparison of individual cases with the

summation of cases that provided the final level of analysis of case patterns.

23

Figure 2

Overall process for analysis of the data

Source: developed for this research

The raw data was examined qualitatively for meaning. The data matrices assisted in

presenting the reduced data in a methodical way and assisted the researcher to centre and

establish the data harmoniously (Miles & Huberman 1994). These matrices are presented

graphically and in tabular form in this chapter to organise ideas and methodically

investigate relations in the data, as well as to communicate the results (Neuman 1994). In

the graphical representation, the x-axis indicates a nominal scale with categories based on

ex-post theoretical replication. The y-axis, an ordinal scale, indicates a Likert scale from

1 to 7 used in the interview protocol. The y-axis is an interval type scale but is not

accurate as it is based on multiple triangulations of the data.

A seven-point Likert scale was finally determined after initially experimenting with other

scales. It was found to provide a level of discrimination that usefully and graphically

represented the transformation of qualitative data into a quantitative measure. The scale

consisted of highest (7); high (6); moderately high (5); moderate (4); moderately low (3);

low (2); and lowest (1). However, the scale rank was not meant to be exact, as the

interview data was part of an examination for meaning. The type of graph used is a

scatter diagram and different symbols have been used to differentiate the types of cases.

Caseanalysis(Level 1)

Cross-caseanalysis(Level 2)

Groupanalysis(Level 3)

Clusteranalysis(Level 4)

Setcomparison ofLevels 3 and 4

(Level 5)

24

Level one is an individual case analysis, between interviewees, of patterns for a specific

interview question, as noted in table 4 and shown in figure 3. Level 1 identified the

similarities and differences of the activities of an individual case. The data matrix

represented this level of analysis with an initial Likert score. The Likert scale quantified

the complexity and range of activities within the cases.

Table 4 Levels in the analysis of the data

Level

Individual interview question

All questions

5 Set analysis: • Comparison of group and cluster analysis. Specifically, a comparison of case

averages for overall activity of all cases and for all questions with individual interview question as represented in the data matrices

4 Cluster analysis: • Cases are clustered by summation of

Likert scores of all cases and all questions (as represented in figure 4).

3 Group analysis: • Similar cases are grouped together and

these groups are compared for differences (see figure 3) and represented in data matrices

2 Cross-case analysis: • Patterns of similarities and differences

for specific interview question across all cases represented by data matrices

1 Within case analysis: • Patterns of similarities and differences

within a case for a specific interview question and was represented by data matrix

Individual scales of the indexes The sum of individual indexes Operational measure

Comparison of the individual scales of the indexes with the sum of individual indexes

Source: developed for this research

Level two was a cross-case analysis in which cases from level one were compared for

similarities and differences, as noted in table 4 and shown in figure 3. Thus the activities

of questions within specific interview questions across all cases were compared for

patterns and represented on the data matrix. This second Likert scale quantified the

complexity and range of activities between cases. It applied the same scale as level 1.

25

Figure 3

Formula for group analysis for one case (levels one and two of analysis)

Source: developed for this research

Level three formed the group analysis that grouped together similar cases of the cross-

case analysis, as shown in figure 4 (and noted in table 4). Similar cases were grouped

based on the similar patterns of activities within a specific question. Comparative

analysis of the resultant groupings was carried out.

A group is defined as those cases that have similar patterns of activity for a specific

interview question. Activity is defined as the actions undertaken by RDB to execute their

management processes and roles. Patterns are examined within each case and between

cases to form case groups (Miles & Huberman 1994). Group and cross-case analysis is

carried out to discern similarities and differences. These patterns are systematically

examined through the data by searching for key dimensions and emerging themes.

Through the cross-case analysis the actions of the different boards are compared and

ranked.

VariableInterviewquestion

Specific interview question for one case

Activities ofcase

Compared with

Cases 1-9

----------

--------------------

----------

--------------------

--------------------

----------

Level 1

Level 2

26

Figure 4

Formula for cluster analysis for all cases (levels three and four of analysis)

Source: developed for this research

Level four was a summation of all level three Likert scales for all cases and all 29

questions, as shown in figure 4 (and noted in table 4). Once the 29 Likert scores were

totalled for all the interview questions, an average for all cases was determined. A pattern

emerged of three clusters in this summation. The clusters consisted of a rating of high,

medium and low, as shown in table 4. In the analysis of the cases, the seven-point Likert

score average for high was six, for medium five and for low three.

A cluster is defined as a summation of all questions for an individual case. Specific

interview question are then compared to the cluster. The result is known as a set. During

the set analysis, comparison of the similarities and differences for a specific interview

question is undertaken.

In level five, the set analysis was a comparison of the case patterns of levels three and

four of the cluster and group analysis as shown in figure 5 (and noted in table 4). Level 5

consisted of three steps in the analysis. Step 1 identified the group analysis Likert score

out of seven for individual cases and questions. Step 2 identified the cluster rating of

high, low and medium. Step 3 then compared the group and cluster analysis. Specifically,

comparison occurred between an individual case with the overall activity of all questions

for that board. The outcome of this was that either the patterns were the same or different.

If patterns were different they were represented either above or below the Likert score.

Formula for cluster analysis of individual case All cases

Sum of 29 groupscales from stage 3

29Case average

Case average X 10

Low Medium High(3 onLikertscale)

(5 onLikertscale)

(6 onLikertscale)

=

27

Patterns were then examined to explain the differences between the group and cluster

analysis.

Figure 5

Level five set analysis

Source: developed for this research

Additionally, eight of the questions probed the perceived importance of the variable for

the case. The data for this question is presented in a graphic form using numbers,

symbols and weighted scores for ranking. The scale of 1 to 7 in the figures was used to

indicate the degree of importance of the variables under investigation for a case.

Interviewees were asked to indicate the importance of these factors based on their

experience using a seven point Likert scale. The scale quantified the activities for a case

and the importance consisted of: 1 = very strongly disagree; 2 = strongly disagree; 3 =

disagree; 4 = unsure; 5 = agree; 6 = strongly agree; 7 = very strongly agree.

The research are analysed based on the data drawn from responses of the 29 interview

questions. The findings from each of the interview questions have been summarised with

a figure for each interview question. The Y-axes represent a range of significance for

board activities on a seven-point Likert scale. As noted above, group analysis of each

interview question is carried out where common patterns between cases exist. Then

further analysis of the groups is carried out by a cluster analysis.

Cluster analysis was carried out after all the interview questions were analysed in level

four of the analysis. In level five, the set analysis, cases in each group in figures were

Step 1: Specific question - identify level three group Likert score (range = 1 to 7) of each of the 29questions per case

Step 2: Overall activity - identify level four of board (low, medium, high)Same

Different Below

AboveStep 3: Compare analysis of difference betweenlevels three and four

Level 5 analysis =

Step 1 = Results forlevel three of analysis

Step 2 = Results oflevel four of analysis

Step 3 = Comparison

28

compared with the overall ratings of all questions developed in level three and four. Thus,

level five insights were gained from the variations in the cluster analysis.

Conclusions

Although qualitative research has sometimes been viewed as somehow inferior to

quantitative research (Perry 1998), at least in terms of methodological rigour, we have

argued that qualitative research, as exemplified by the case method, can be fully

appropriate in a number of research situations and can be used with rigourous attention to

methodological integrity. The importance of careful design of case study research cannot

be overstated. More specifically, steps should be taken to ensure construct validity,

confirmability, internal validity and credibility, external validity and transferability, and

reliability and dependability.

References

Amin, A. and Thrift, N. 1994, ‘Holding down the global’, in Globalisation, Institutions

and Regional Development in Europe, (eds) A. Amin, and N. Thrift, Oxford University

Press, Oxford.

Allen, S. 1989, ‘Corporatism and regional economic policies in the federal republic of

Germany: the ‘meso’ politics of industrial adjustment’, The Journal of Federalism, vol. 19,

no. 4, pp. 147-164.

Anderson, J. 1990, ‘The new right, enterprise zones and urban development corporations’,

International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 468-489.

Anderson, P.F. 1986, “On method in consumer research: A critical relativist perspective”

Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 13, pp. 155-177.

Beer, M. 1988, “Towards a redefinition of O.D.: a critique of research focus and method”

Academy of Management O.D. Newsletter Winter.

Bhaskar, R. 1997, A Realist Theory of Science, Verso, London.

29

Billingsley, J.M. and M.S. Poole 1986, “Organisational groups in conflict: a case study of

conflict interaction from a rules perspective” paper presented at The Oganisational

Communication Division of the International Communication Association 36th Annual

Meeting, Chicago.

Blakely, E. J. 1994, Planning Local Economies Development, Theory and Practise, 2nd

edition, Sage Publication, London.

Bonoma, T. 1985, “Case research in marketing: opportunities, problems, and a process”

Journal of Marketing Research, vol. 12, pp. 199-208.

Burgess, R.G. 1984, In the Field: An Introduction to Field Research, Allen and Unwin,

London.

Cassell, C. and Symon, G.1994, Qualitative Methods in Organisational Research, Sage,

London.

Christie, M. 1999, “Entrepreneurial strategy of regional development boards: a study of

how management processes and roles are executed” unsubmitted PhD. thesis, Faculty of

Business, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane.

Cooke, P. and Morgan, K. 1994, ‘Growth regions under duress: renewal strategies in

Baden Wurttenberg and Emilia-Romagna’, in Globalization, Institutions and Regional

Development in Europe, (eds) A. Amin and N.Thrift, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Coote, L. 1994, “Epistemological foundations of case study research methodology”

Working paper, School of Marketing, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane.

Cox, K.R. and Mair, A. 1988, ‘Locality and community in the politics of local economic

development’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 78, no. 2, pp. 307-

325.

Danson, M. Lloyd, G. and Newlands, G. 1989, ‘Scottish enterprise: towards a model

agency or a flawed initiative?’, Regional Studies, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 557-563.

30

Denzin, N.K. 1978, Sociological Methods: A Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Denzin, N.K. and Y.S. Lincoln, (eds.) 1994, Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage,

Thousand Oaks.

Department of Industry, Science and Technology 1995, Regional Enterprise Centre

Networks: a report on the application of networked business incubators in the regional

development context, prepared by Latrobe University and Finney Whelan and Associates,

Melbourne.

Deshpande, R. 1983, “Paragigms lost: on theory and method in research in marketing”,

Journal of Marketing, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 101-110.

Dick, B. 1990, Convergent Interviewing, Interchange, Brisbane.

Dicken, P. and Tickell, A. 1992, ‘Competitors or collaborators? The structure of inward

investment promotion in northern England’, Regional Studies, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 99-114.

Easton, G. 1982, Learning from Case Studies, Prentice-Hall, New York.

Eisenhardt, K.M. 1989, “Building theories from case study research”, Academy of

Management Review, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 532-550.

Emory, C.W. and D.R. Cooper 1991, Business Research Methods, (4th ed), Irwin,

Boston.

Foster, M.E. 1991, 'Qualitative investigations into schools and schooling', Readings on

Equal Education, vol. 11, pp. 312.

Gabriel, C. 1990, “The validity of qualitative market research”, Journal of the Market

Research Society, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 507-519.

Gilmore,A. and D. Carson 1996, “Integrative qualitative methods in a services context”,

Marketing Intelligence and Planning, vol. 14, no. 6 pp. 21-26.

31

Glasser, B.G. and A.L. Strauss 1967, The Discovery of Grounded Theory Strategies for

Qualitative Research, Aldine, Chicago.

Guba, E.G. and Y.S. Lincoln 1994, “Competing paradigms in qualitative research” in

Denzin and Lincoln (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Hakim, C. 1994, Strategic and Choices in Design of Research, Routledge, New York.

Hansen, N., Higgins, B. and Savoie, D. 1990, Regional Policy in a Changing World,

Plenum Press, New York.

Hassink, R. 1999, ‘South Korea’s economic miracle and crisis: explanations and regional

consequences’, European Planning Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 127-143.

Haubermann, H. and Siebel, W. 1990, ‘The polarisation of urban development in Federal

Republic Germany’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, vol. 14, no. 3,

pp. 169-382.

Hayton, K. 1989, ‘The future of local economic development’, Regional Studies, vol. 23, no.

6, pp. 549-564.

Herriott, R.E. and W.A. Firestone 1983, “Multisite qualitative policy research: optimising

description and generalizability”, Educational Researcher, vol. 12, pp. 14-19.

Higgins, B. and Savoie, J. 1995, Regional Development Theories and Their Application,

Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, New Jersey.

Hirschman, E.C. 1986, “Humanistic inquiry in marketing research: philosophy, method,

and criteria”, Journal of Marketing Research, vol. 23, pp. 237-249.

Hodgkinson, A. 1993, ‘Local development initiatives in the mid-Atlantic regions of the

USA’, Regional Policy and Practice, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 17.

Huberman, A. and M. Miles 1985, “Assessing local causality in qualitative research”,

Exploring Clinical Methods for Social Research, Sage, Beverly Hills.

32

Hunt, S. 1991, Modern Marketing Theory, Southwestern, Cincinnati.

Hunt, S. 1992, “For reason and realism in marketing”, Journal of Marketing, vol. 56, pp.

89-102.

Jorgensen, D.L. 1989, Participant Observation: A Methodology for Human Studies, Sage,

Newbury Park.

Kaplan, R.S. 1986, “The role of empirical research in management accounting”,

Accounting, Organization and Society, vol. 11, no. 4-5, pp. 429-452.

Keating, M. 1993, ‘The politics of economic development: political change and local

development policies in the United States, Britain and France’, Urban Affairs Quarterly,

vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 373-396.

King, G., R. Kochrane, and S. Verba 1994, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference

in Qualitative Research, Princeton, Princeton.

Layder, D. 1993, New Strategies in Social Research, Polity Press, Cambridge.

Lazerson, M.H. 1988, ‘Organisational growth of small firms: an outcome of markets and

hierarchies?’, American Sociological Review, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 330-342.

Lever, W.F. 1993, “Reurbanisation: The Policy Implications”, Urban Studies, vol. 30, no.

2, pp. 267-284.

Lincoln, Y.S. and E.G. Guba 1985, Naturalistic Inquiry, Sage, Newbury Park.

Maher, C. 1993, ‘Recent trends in Australian urban development: locational change and

the policy quandary’, Urban Studies, vol. 30, nos. 4/5, pp. 797-825.

Manicas, P. and P. Secord 1982, “Implications for psychology of the new philosophy of

science”, American Psychologist, vol. 38, pp. 390-413.

Marshall, C. and Rossman, G.B. 1989, Designing Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand

Oaks.

33

Maycut, P. and R. Morehouse 1994, Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and

Practical Guide, Falmer, London.

McDaniel, C. and R. Gates 1991, Contemporary Market Research, West, St. Paul.

McKinney, J.C. 1966, Constructive Typology and Social Theory, Appleton-Century-

Crofts, New York.

Merriam, S.B. 1988, Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach, Jossey-

Bass, San Francisco.

Miles, M.B. and A.M. Huberman 1984, Qualitative data analysis: A Sourcebook of New

Methods, (1st ed.), Sage, New York.

Miles, M.B. and A.M. Huberman 1994, Qualitative data analysis: An Expanded

Sourcebook of New Methods, (2nd ed.), Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Morgan, G. and L. Smircich 1980, “The case for qualitative research”, Academy of

Management Review, vol. 5, pp. 491-500.

Nair, G.S. and A.M. Riege 1995, “Convergent interviewing to refine the research

problem of a PhD thesis” paper presented at Marketing Educators’ and Researchers’

International Conference, Gold Coast, Australia.

Neuman, W.L. 1994, Social Research Methods, Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights.

Orlikowski, W.J. and J.J. Baroudi 1991, “Studying information technology in

organisations: research approaches and assumptions”, Information Systems Research, vol.

2, no. 1, pp. 1-14.

Outhwaite, W. 1983, “Toward a realist perspective”, pp. 321-330, in G. Morgan (ed.),

Beyond Method: Strategies for Social Research, Sage, Beverly Hills,.

Parkhe, A. 1993, “’Messy’ research, methodological predispositions, and theory

development in international joint ventures”, Academy of Management Review, vol. 18,

no. 2, pp. 227-268.

34

Pawson, R. and Tilley, N. 1997, Evaluation Research, Sage, London.

Patton, M.Q. 1990, Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Sage, Newbury Park.

Perry, C. and L. Coote 1994, “Process of a Case Study Research Methodology: Tools for

Management Development?” paper presented at Annual Conference of the Australian and

New Zealand Association of Management, Wellington, New Zealand.

Perry, C., Y. Alizadeh, and A. Riege 1997, “Qualitative Methods in Entrepreneurship

Research” Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Small Enterprise Association of

Australia and New Zealand, Coffs Harbour, 21-23 September, pp. 547-567.

Perry, C. 1998, “Processes of a case study methodology for postgraduate research in

marketing” The European Journal of Marketing, vol. 32, nos. 9/10, pp. 785-802.

Pettigrew, A. M. 1990, “Longitudinal field research on change: theory and practice”

Organizational Science, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 267-292.

Pierson, C. 1991, Beyond the welfare state? The new political economy of welfare,

Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania.

Riege, A.M. 1997, Marketing Communication of International Travel and Tourism: A

Study of UK and German Markets for Australia and New Zealand, unpublished thesis,

Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane.

Riege, A.M. and G.S. Nair 1996, “Criteria for judging the quality of case study research”

Working Paper, School of Marketing, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane.

Robson, C. 1993, Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and

Practitioners-Researchers, Blackwell, Oxford.

Sanders, J.R. 1981, “Case study methodology: a critique case study methodology in

education evaluation”, Proceedings of the Minnesota Evaluation Conference, Minnesota

Research and Evaluation Centre, Minneapolis.

Saul, R. 1996, The Unconscious Civilization, Penguin, Melbourne.

35

Sekaran, U. 1992, Research methods for Business, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.

Shapiro, S. 1990, Between Capitalism and Democracy: Educational Policy and the Crisis of

the Welfare State, Bergin and Garvey, New York.

Singleton, R., B. Straits, and M. Straits 1993, Approaches to Social Research, Oxford,

New York.

Smith, R.E. 1988, “The logic and design of case study research”, The Sport Psychologist,

vol. 2 pp. 1-12.

Stake, R.E. 1978, “The case study method in social inquiry”, Educational Researcher,

vol. 7, pp. 5-8.

Stake, R.E. 1994, Case Studies: Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand

Oaks.

Stake, R.E. 1995, The Art of Case Study Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks.

Sykes, W. 1990, “Validity and reliability in qualitative market research: a review of the

literature”, Journal of the Market Research Society, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 3-12.

Sykes, W. 1991, “Taking stock: issues from the literature on validity and reliability in

qualitative research”, Journal of the Market Research Society, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 3-12.

Tower, G. 1995, Building democracy: community architecture in the inner cities, UCL

Press, London.

Tsoukas, H. 1989, “The validity of ideograph research explanations”, Academy of

Management Review, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 551-561.

Weick, K. 1968, ‘Systematic observational methods’, in The Handbook of Social

Psychology, (eds) G. Hindzeg and E. Aronson, Addison and Wesley, Reading.

Weinstein, B.L., Goss, H.T. and Rees, J. 1985, Regional growth and decline in the United

States, Praeger, New York.

36

Wollin, A.S. 1995, A Hierarchy-Based Punctuated-Equilibrium Model of the Process of

Emergence and Change of New Rural Industries, unpublished PhD thesis, Griffith

University Faculty of Commerce and Administration, Brisbane.

Yin, R.K. 1981, “The case study as a serious research strategy”, Knowledge: Creation,

Diffusion, Utilization, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 97-114.

Yin, R.K. 1989, Case Study Research Design and Methods, Sage, Newbury Park.

Yin, R.K. 1993, Applications of Case Study Research, Sage, Newbury Park.

Yin, R.K. 1994, Case Study Research: Design and Methods, Sage, Newbury Park.

Yuill, D. Allen, K. and Hull, D. (eds.) 1980, Regional Policy in the European Community,

St. Martins Press, New York.

Zikmund, W. 1988, Exploring Market Research, Dryden, New York.

Zikmund, W. 1991, Business Research Methods, Dryden, New York.