Class 1a.Class 1a.Introduction to the Introduction to the

enterpriseenterprise

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Some things we knowSome things we know Is this English?Is this English?

The cat slept.The cat slept. Slept the cat.Slept the cat. Cat slept the.Cat slept the. Cat the slept.Cat the slept.

Why?Why?

The taskThe task What do we know?What do we know?

TheThe comes before comes before catcat, , catcat comes before comes before sleptslept.. Try to generalize.Try to generalize.

Slept Slept is the verb, maybe this holds of all verbs.is the verb, maybe this holds of all verbs. The catThe cat is the subject, maybe this holds of all is the subject, maybe this holds of all subjects.subjects.

Subjects contain Subjects contain thethe and a noun, with and a noun, with thethe first. first. An English sentence has a subject followed by a An English sentence has a subject followed by a verb.verb.

Formalize (make precise)Formalize (make precise) Nouns: cat, dogNouns: cat, dog Verbs: slept, yawnedVerbs: slept, yawned [[SentenceSentence [ [SubjectSubject thethe NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb ] ]

The taskThe task Check:Check:

[[SentenceSentence [ [SubjectSubject thethe NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb ] ] The cat slept.The cat slept. The dog yawned.The dog yawned. The cat yawned.The cat yawned. The dog slept.The dog slept.

Look at further data (predictions):Look at further data (predictions): The cat chased the dog.The cat chased the dog.

This is an English sentence, but our schema This is an English sentence, but our schema cannot produce it. Our “theory of English cannot produce it. Our “theory of English sentences” is insufficient. We need to sentences” is insufficient. We need to revise/extend it.revise/extend it.

The taskThe task Consider the counterexample (or the Consider the counterexample (or the class of counterexamples) to understand class of counterexamples) to understand where the current theory falls short.where the current theory falls short. The cat chased the dog.The cat chased the dog.

The dogThe dog is probably the same kind of thing as is probably the same kind of thing as the the catcat, but we don’t want to call it a “subject” , but we don’t want to call it a “subject” (it’s traditionally called the “object”).(it’s traditionally called the “object”).

It contains It contains thethe and a noun, and the noun seems to and a noun, and the noun seems to be the most important part.be the most important part.

Since it contains more than one word, we can call Since it contains more than one word, we can call it a “phrase”—it’s not a whole sentence, but it’s it a “phrase”—it’s not a whole sentence, but it’s more than a word.more than a word.

So, we’ll call it a “noun phrase.”So, we’ll call it a “noun phrase.”

The taskThe task Consider the counterexample (or the Consider the counterexample (or the class of counterexamples) to class of counterexamples) to understand where the current theory understand where the current theory falls short.falls short. The cat chased the dog.The cat chased the dog.

In this English sentence, there is a noun In this English sentence, there is a noun phrase both before and after the verb. So, in phrase both before and after the verb. So, in addition to our previous schema, we add a addition to our previous schema, we add a second one.second one.

Theory of English sentences:Theory of English sentences: [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP thethe NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb ] ] [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] ] ]

Lather, rinse, repeatLather, rinse, repeat And the process continues.And the process continues.

The cat chased a dog.The cat chased a dog. A cat chased the dog.A cat chased the dog. A cat chased a dog.A cat chased a dog.

It looks like a NP can either have It looks like a NP can either have the the or or aa as its as its first element. Thus:first element. Thus:

Theory of English sentences:Theory of English sentences: [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP thethe NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb ] ] [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP aa NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb ] ] [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] ] ] [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb [ [NPNP a a NounNoun ] ] ] ] [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP a a NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] ] ] [[SentenceSentence [ [NPNP the the NounNoun ] ] VerbVerb [ [NPNP a a NounNoun ] ] ] ]

GeneralizingGeneralizing What we’ve ended up with is a bit clumsy, What we’ve ended up with is a bit clumsy, but we can now generalize our schemas to but we can now generalize our schemas to make this more compact:make this more compact: [[NPNP thethe NounNoun ] ] [[NPNP aa NounNoun ] ] [[SentenceSentence NP NP VerbVerb ] ] [[SentenceSentence NP NP VerbVerb NP] NP]

Not only does this reduce the amount we have to write Not only does this reduce the amount we have to write down, but it actually makes a more profound down, but it actually makes a more profound prediction: If this much of our theory of English prediction: If this much of our theory of English sentences is right, then anything that can be a noun sentences is right, then anything that can be a noun phrase subject can also be a noun phrase object. This phrase subject can also be a noun phrase object. This is is notnot just making our notation more compact, but it just making our notation more compact, but it is a substantive addition to the theory.is a substantive addition to the theory.

Compacting the notationCompacting the notation There are some further ways we can There are some further ways we can consolidate our theory of English consolidate our theory of English sentences by using some common sentences by using some common notational tools.notational tools.

X is optional: (X)X is optional: (X) Either Y or Z: {Y/Z}Either Y or Z: {Y/Z}

Thus:Thus: [[SentenceSentence NP NP VerbVerb (NP) ] (NP) ] [[NPNP { {thethe//aa} } NounNoun ] ]

Unlike our introduction of a separate schema for Unlike our introduction of a separate schema for NP, this change is not a substantive change to NP, this change is not a substantive change to our theory of English sentences, it is just a our theory of English sentences, it is just a shorthand for the same theory.shorthand for the same theory.

The grumpy catThe grumpy cat As a demonstration of the benefit of As a demonstration of the benefit of introducing a separate NP schema, introducing a separate NP schema, consider:consider: The grumpy cat chased the unhappy dog.The grumpy cat chased the unhappy dog.

How can we extend our theory of How can we extend our theory of English sentences to allow for this English sentences to allow for this sentence? What other word sequences sentence? What other word sequences are predicted to be English are predicted to be English sentences? Are they? sentences? Are they?

Now, what are we doing?Now, what are we doing? Ok, so we have the beginnings of a theory Ok, so we have the beginnings of a theory of English sentences. But what of English sentences. But what isis it? it?

As we’ve developed it, it is a As we’ve developed it, it is a descriptiondescription of of sentences of English, what we might need if we wanted sentences of English, what we might need if we wanted to program a computer to produce English sentences.to program a computer to produce English sentences.

But it is also a subset of what English But it is also a subset of what English speakers know about English.speakers know about English.

You may or may not have previously thought about the You may or may not have previously thought about the fact that subjects precede verbs and objects follow fact that subjects precede verbs and objects follow verbs (or the analog in your native language), but verbs (or the analog in your native language), but you you knew knew it nevertheless. You could identify it nevertheless. You could identify sequences of words that did not have this property as sequences of words that did not have this property as not being part of your language, but it’s not being part of your language, but it’s tacittacit knowledge. As such, we have to study this knowledge knowledge. As such, we have to study this knowledge indirectly, based on what are judged to be valid indirectly, based on what are judged to be valid sentences and what aren’t.sentences and what aren’t.

What English speakersWhat English speakersknow about Englishknow about English

An English speaker has a complex system An English speaker has a complex system of knowledge that allows him/her to of knowledge that allows him/her to distinguish between sentences of distinguish between sentences of English and non-sentences of English. English and non-sentences of English. We’ll refer to this system as a We’ll refer to this system as a grammargrammar. At its simplest, a grammar is . At its simplest, a grammar is a means of deciding whether a sequence a means of deciding whether a sequence of words is of words is grammaticalgrammatical (e.g., a (e.g., a sentence of English) or not. We’re sentence of English) or not. We’re studying the properties of that system.studying the properties of that system.

It’s not always obvious what it is that is wrong It’s not always obvious what it is that is wrong with non-sentences, but still the judgments with non-sentences, but still the judgments ((intuitionsintuitions) are clear.) are clear.

Types of Types of (un)acceptability(un)acceptability

*Big that under staple run the jump swim.*Big that under staple run the jump swim. *The dog are snoring.*The dog are snoring.

These are These are ungrammaticalungrammatical—there is a problem with —there is a problem with their form, they are not English. We write * to their form, they are not English. We write * to indicate this.indicate this.

My toothbrush is pregnant again.My toothbrush is pregnant again. This is nonsensical, given our knowledge about the This is nonsensical, given our knowledge about the world (not about English), but it is world (not about English), but it is grammaticalgrammatical..

As I knitted the sockAs I knitted the sock The horse raced The horse raced fell to the floor.fell to the floor. past the barn fell.past the barn fell.

The rat the cat the dog chased caught The rat the cat the dog chased caught escaped adeptly.escaped adeptly.

These are interestingly difficult to These are interestingly difficult to parseparse but but once you “get it,” they are fine (if clumsy) once you “get it,” they are fine (if clumsy) sentences of English.sentences of English.

Parentheses and Parentheses and optionalityoptionality

In describing data, people will often use In describing data, people will often use the (), {} shorthand notation to indicate the (), {} shorthand notation to indicate optionality or options:optionality or options: Pat (quickly) ran to the bank.Pat (quickly) ran to the bank.

Pat ran to the bank.Pat ran to the bank. Pat quickly ran to the bank.Pat quickly ran to the bank. Pat washed (*quickly) the asparagus.Pat washed (*quickly) the asparagus.

Pat washed the asparagus.Pat washed the asparagus. *Pat washed quickly the *Pat washed quickly the asparagus.asparagus.

The dish ran away with *(the) spoon.The dish ran away with *(the) spoon. The dish ran away with the spoon.The dish ran away with the spoon. *The dish ran away with spoon.*The dish ran away with spoon.

The cat chased {a/the} dog.The cat chased {a/the} dog. The cat chased a dog.The cat chased a dog. The cat chased the dog.The cat chased the dog.

Ambiguity and starsAmbiguity and stars Sentences can be ambiguous.Sentences can be ambiguous.

I sat by the bank.I sat by the bank. Sometimes we might have reason to Sometimes we might have reason to expect ambiguity that is not there, expect ambiguity that is not there, which is also indicated using *, on a which is also indicated using *, on a disambiguating continuation.disambiguating continuation. How did John say Mary fixed the car?How did John say Mary fixed the car?

With a wrench.With a wrench. In a high-pitched voice.In a high-pitched voice.

How did John ask if Mary fixed the car?How did John ask if Mary fixed the car? *With a wrench.*With a wrench. In a high-pitched voice.In a high-pitched voice.

Knowledge of language Knowledge of language is actually really is actually really

complicatedcomplicated Bill told her mother that Mary is a genius.Bill told her mother that Mary is a genius. Bill told her that Mary is a genius.Bill told her that Mary is a genius.

I told I told MaryMary that that PatPat gave a book to gave a book to meme.. Who did I tell that Pat gave a book to me?Who did I tell that Pat gave a book to me? *Who did I tell Mary that gave a book to me?*Who did I tell Mary that gave a book to me? Who did I tell Mary that Pat gave a book to?Who did I tell Mary that Pat gave a book to?

I loaned I loaned MaryMary the book the book PatPat gave gave meme.. Who did I loan the book Pat gave me?Who did I loan the book Pat gave me? *Who did I loan Mary the book gave me?*Who did I loan Mary the book gave me? *Who did I loan Mary the book Pat gave?*Who did I loan Mary the book Pat gave?

How do people know How do people know this?this?

AllAll native speakers of English know native speakers of English know this.this.

Little kids weren’t told these rules Little kids weren’t told these rules (or punished for violating them)…(or punished for violating them)… “ “You can’t question a subject in a You can’t question a subject in a complement embedded with complement embedded with thatthat””

““You can’t use a proper name as an You can’t use a proper name as an object if the subject is co-object if the subject is co-referential.”referential.”

Two questionsTwo questions What do people know about their What do people know about their language?language? Including things we know Including things we know “unconsciously”“unconsciously”

How do people come to know it?How do people come to know it? Tricky question for things that we Tricky question for things that we don’t know we know.don’t know we know.

SystematicitySystematicity What people eventually end up with is What people eventually end up with is

a a systemsystem with which they can produce with which they can produce (and rate) sentences. A (and rate) sentences. A grammargrammar..

Even if you’ve never heard these Even if you’ve never heard these before, you know which one is before, you know which one is “English” and which one isn’t:“English” and which one isn’t:

Eight very lazy elephants drank brandy.Eight very lazy elephants drank brandy. Eight elephants very lazy brandy drank,Eight elephants very lazy brandy drank,

Kids say Kids say wugswugs..

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

Adults know if a given sentence S Adults know if a given sentence S is is grammaticalgrammatical or or ungrammaticalungrammatical. . This is part of the knowledge kids This is part of the knowledge kids gain through language acquisition.gain through language acquisition.

Kids hear grammatical sentencesKids hear grammatical sentences((positive evidencepositive evidence))

Kids are not generally told which Kids are not generally told which sentences are ungrammaticalsentences are ungrammatical((no negativeno negative evidenceevidence))

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

One of the striking things about child One of the striking things about child language is how few language is how few errorserrors they they actually make.actually make.

For negative feedback to work, the For negative feedback to work, the kids have to kids have to makemake the errors (so that the errors (so that it can get the negative response).it can get the negative response).

But they don’t make the errors.But they don’t make the errors. (Kids do make errors, but not of the kind (Kids do make errors, but not of the kind that one might expect if they were just that one might expect if they were just trying to extract patterns from the trying to extract patterns from the language data they hear)language data they hear)

Poverty of the stimulusPoverty of the stimulus What is the next number in this What is the next number in this sequence?sequence? 1, 2, 3, __1, 2, 3, __

How do you form a yes-no question?How do you form a yes-no question? Pat will leave.Pat will leave. Will Pat leave?Will Pat leave?

The book that you were reading was good.The book that you were reading was good. *Book the that you were reading was good?*Book the that you were reading was good? *Were the book that you reading was good?*Were the book that you reading was good? Was the book that you were reading good?Was the book that you were reading good?

The “Language instinct”The “Language instinct” The linguistic capacity is part of The linguistic capacity is part of being human.being human.

Like having two arms, ten fingers, a Like having two arms, ten fingers, a vision system, humans have a language vision system, humans have a language faculty.faculty.

The language faculty (tightly) The language faculty (tightly) constrains what kinds of languages a constrains what kinds of languages a child can learn.child can learn.

=“=“Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar” (UG). ” (UG).

But languages differBut languages differ

English, French: English, French: Subject Verb ObjectSubject Verb Object ( (SVOSVO)) John ate an appleJohn ate an apple.. Pierre a mangé une pommePierre a mangé une pomme..

Japanese, Korean: Japanese, Korean: Subject Object VerbSubject Object Verb ((SOVSOV)) Taroo-wa ringo-o tabetaTaroo-wa ringo-o tabeta.. Chelswu-ka sakwa-lul mekesstaChelswu-ka sakwa-lul mekessta..

Irish, Arabic (Irish, Arabic (VSOVSO), Malagasy (), Malagasy (VOSVOS), …), …

But languages differBut languages differ English: English: AdverbsAdverbs before before verbsverbs

Mary Mary quicklyquickly eatseats an apple. an apple. (also: Mary ate an apple quickly)(also: Mary ate an apple quickly)

*Mary *Mary eatseats quicklyquickly an apple. an apple.

French: French: AdverbsAdverbs after after verbsverbs Geneviève Geneviève mangemange rapidementrapidement une pomme. une pomme. *Geneviève *Geneviève rapidementrapidement mangemange une une pomme.pomme.

ParametersParameters We can categorize languages in terms of We can categorize languages in terms of their word order: their word order: SVOSVO, , SOVSOV, , VSOVSO..

This is a This is a parameterparameter by which languages by which languages differ.differ.

The dominant formal theory of first The dominant formal theory of first language acquisition holds that children language acquisition holds that children have access to a set of parameters by have access to a set of parameters by which languages can differ; acquisition which languages can differ; acquisition is the process of is the process of settingsetting those those parameters.parameters.

What are the parameters?What are the parameters? What are the “universal” principles of What are the “universal” principles of grammar?grammar?

The enterpriseThe enterprise The data we will primarily be concerned The data we will primarily be concerned with are with are native speaker intuitionsnative speaker intuitions..

Native speakers, faced with a sentence Native speakers, faced with a sentence S, S, knowknow whether the sentence S is part whether the sentence S is part of their language or isn’t. These of their language or isn’t. These intuitions are highly systematic.intuitions are highly systematic.

We want to uncover the system (which is We want to uncover the system (which is unconscious knowledge) behind the unconscious knowledge) behind the intuitions of native speakers—their intuitions of native speakers—their knowledge of language.knowledge of language.

I-languageI-language We are studying the system behind We are studying the system behind one one person’s person’s pattern of intuitions.pattern of intuitions.

Speakers growing up in the same Speakers growing up in the same community have very similar knowledge, community have very similar knowledge, but language is an but language is an individualindividual thing (“I-thing (“I-language”).language”).

One doesn’t need to ask the académie française One doesn’t need to ask the académie française whether whether Geneviève rapidement mange une pommeGeneviève rapidement mange une pomme is a is a sentence of French. One knows.sentence of French. One knows.

I-languages of a community is can be I-languages of a community is can be characterized, but it is characterized, but it is externalexternal to the to the speaker (“E-language”), not any one speaker (“E-language”), not any one person’s knowledge, a generalization person’s knowledge, a generalization over many people’s I-languages.over many people’s I-languages.

For example, Parisian French.For example, Parisian French.

CompetenceCompetence We are also concerned with We are also concerned with what a what a person knowsperson knows—what characterizes a —what characterizes a person’s language person’s language competencecompetence. We are . We are in general not concerned here with how in general not concerned here with how a person ends up a person ends up usingusing this knowledge this knowledge ((performanceperformance).). You still have your language competence You still have your language competence when you are sleeping, in the absence of when you are sleeping, in the absence of any performance. Being drunk doesn’t make any performance. Being drunk doesn’t make one think “bought some John coffee” is one think “bought some John coffee” is English, though perhaps one might English, though perhaps one might saysay it. it.

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules Another thing we need to be Another thing we need to be cautious of are cautious of are prescriptive prescriptive rulesrules. Often prescriptive rules . Often prescriptive rules of “good grammar” turn out to be of “good grammar” turn out to be impositions on our native grammar impositions on our native grammar which run counter to our native which run counter to our native competence.competence.

After all, why did they need to After all, why did they need to be rules in the first place?be rules in the first place?

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules Prepositions are things you don’t end a Prepositions are things you don’t end a sentence with.sentence with.

It is important to religiously avoid It is important to religiously avoid splitting infinitives.splitting infinitives.

Remember: Capitalize the first word Remember: Capitalize the first word after a colon.after a colon.

Don’t be so immodest as to say Don’t be so immodest as to say I and I and John leftJohn left; say ; say John and I left John and I left instead.instead.

ImpactImpact is not a verb. is not a verb. The book which you just bought is The book which you just bought is offensive.offensive.

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules When making grammaticality judgments (or When making grammaticality judgments (or when asking others to make grammaticality when asking others to make grammaticality judgments), we must do our best to factor judgments), we must do our best to factor out prescriptive rules (learned out prescriptive rules (learned explicitly, e.g., in school).explicitly, e.g., in school). We’re not interested in studying the We’re not interested in studying the prescriptive rules; we could just look them prescriptive rules; we could just look them up, and it isn’t likely to tell us anything up, and it isn’t likely to tell us anything deep about the makeup of the human mind. deep about the makeup of the human mind. They’re really just a “secret handshake,” They’re really just a “secret handshake,” allowing educated people to detect one allowing educated people to detect one another.another.

Syntax as scienceSyntax as science Syntax, as practiced here, is a Syntax, as practiced here, is a scientificscientific enterprise. This means, in enterprise. This means, in particular, approaching syntax using particular, approaching syntax using the scientific method.the scientific method.

Step 1:Step 1: Gather observations (data) Gather observations (data) Step 2:Step 2: Make generalizations Make generalizations Step 3:Step 3: Form hypotheses Form hypotheses Step 4:Step 4: Test predictionsTest predictions made by these made by these hypotheses, returning to step 1.hypotheses, returning to step 1.

Syntax as scienceSyntax as science This is pretty much the way other This is pretty much the way other scientific disciplines work… biology, scientific disciplines work… biology, chemistry, physics.chemistry, physics.

We may start out with a kind of “folk We may start out with a kind of “folk understanding” of a field.understanding” of a field. For example, you push something and it moves. For example, you push something and it moves. You stop pushing, and it stops. The sun You stop pushing, and it stops. The sun revolves around the earth from East to West, revolves around the earth from East to West, followed by the moon. Water is a basic element, followed by the moon. Water is a basic element, like fire. Whales are very big fish, like like fire. Whales are very big fish, like dolphins, or tuna, but bigger.dolphins, or tuna, but bigger.

Ockham’s RazorOckham’s Razor: posit as few concepts and : posit as few concepts and relations as we can get away with. A leaner relations as we can get away with. A leaner theory is a better theory. A more easily theory is a better theory. A more easily falsifiablefalsifiable theory is a better theory too. theory is a better theory too.

Levels of adequacyLevels of adequacy If our hypotheses can predict the existence If our hypotheses can predict the existence of the grammatical sentences in a corpus (a of the grammatical sentences in a corpus (a set of grammatical sentences), it is set of grammatical sentences), it is observationally adequateobservationally adequate. .

Note: the grammar described by “some number of words Note: the grammar described by “some number of words appear in some order” is observationally adequate, for appear in some order” is observationally adequate, for pretty much any language. This is not a very difficult pretty much any language. This is not a very difficult or satisfying level of adequacy to reach. Nor is it or satisfying level of adequacy to reach. Nor is it disprovable, but it hasn’t really advanced our disprovable, but it hasn’t really advanced our understanding of the world.understanding of the world.

If our hypotheses can predict the native-If our hypotheses can predict the native-speaker intuitions about which sentences are speaker intuitions about which sentences are grammatical and which are ungrammatical, it grammatical and which are ungrammatical, it is is descriptively adequatedescriptively adequate..

Levels of adequacyLevels of adequacy If we can take a descriptively adequate If we can take a descriptively adequate set of hypotheses one step further and set of hypotheses one step further and account not only for the native speaker account not only for the native speaker judgments but also for how children come judgments but also for how children come to have these judgments, our hypotheses to have these judgments, our hypotheses are are explanatorily adequateexplanatorily adequate..

It’s this last level that we are hoping It’s this last level that we are hoping to achieve.to achieve. Basic principlesBasic principles Parameters of variationParameters of variation How to set the parameters from child’s inputHow to set the parameters from child’s input

Infinite use of finite Infinite use of finite meansmeans

English has an infinite number of sentences. Any English has an infinite number of sentences. Any natural language does.natural language does. John said that English has an infinite number of John said that English has an infinite number of sentences.sentences.

Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences.Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences. Pat said that Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences.Pat said that Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences. Tracy said that Pat said that Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences.Tracy said that Pat said that Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences. Chris said that Tracy said that Pat said that Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences.Chris said that Tracy said that Pat said that Mary said that John said that English has an infinite number of sentences.

If S is a sentence and N is a name,If S is a sentence and N is a name,N said that SN said that S is also a sentence. is also a sentence. S S N said that S N said that S

Some of the earliest work in grammatical theory Some of the earliest work in grammatical theory was done by trying to state rules of this form, was done by trying to state rules of this form, the goal being to the goal being to generategenerate the sentences of a the sentences of a language.language.

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Serious scientific study of Serious scientific study of sentence structure of this kind sentence structure of this kind generally began in the 50’s, generally began in the 50’s, driven to a large extent by the driven to a large extent by the work of Noam Chomsky.work of Noam Chomsky.

It’s now half a century later, It’s now half a century later, and we have learned a and we have learned a lotlot about about how syntax works.how syntax works.

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Progress was incremental, and often Progress was incremental, and often required revising our assumptions about required revising our assumptions about how sentences are really put together.how sentences are really put together.

Data was examined, generalizations were Data was examined, generalizations were arrived at, hypotheses were formed, arrived at, hypotheses were formed, predictions were tested—and often led predictions were tested—and often led to revisions of the generalizations and to revisions of the generalizations and the hypotheses, and so forth.the hypotheses, and so forth.

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Two goals of the class:Two goals of the class: Think like a syntactician.Think like a syntactician. Be able to read (relatively recent) Be able to read (relatively recent) books, articles, etc. about syntax.books, articles, etc. about syntax.

It’s not really enough to just It’s not really enough to just know know what what people concluded, we people concluded, we need to understand need to understand why why they they concluded what they did.concluded what they did.

Some milestonesSome milestones Until about the mid-70’s, Until about the mid-70’s, phrase structure phrase structure rulesrules..

S S NP VP NP VP VP VP V (NP) V (NP) Mid-70’s, Mid-70’s, X-Bar TheoryX-Bar Theory (a generalization (a generalization about what are possible PSRs).about what are possible PSRs).

In the 80’s, a fairly significant shift to In the 80’s, a fairly significant shift to Government and Binding TheoryGovernment and Binding Theory (viewing (viewing grammar a little less like a computer grammar a little less like a computer program). Very productive.program). Very productive.

In the 90’s, another shift to In the 90’s, another shift to the the Minimalist ProgramMinimalist Program (an attempt at (an attempt at simplification, as well as a change in simplification, as well as a change in philosophy).philosophy).