CAS LX 502CAS LX 502SemanticsSemantics

12a. Speech acts12a. Speech acts

Ch. 10(3)Ch. 10(3)

Conventional sentence Conventional sentence typestypes

Declarative.Declarative. (Assertion) (Assertion) I seem to have forgotten my I seem to have forgotten my umbrella.umbrella.

Interrogative.Interrogative. (Question) (Question) Where did I leave it?Where did I leave it?

Imperative.Imperative. (Order/Request) (Order/Request) Go find my umbrella!Go find my umbrella!

[ [ Optative. Optative. (Wish)(Wish) ] ] If only I had my umbrella!If only I had my umbrella!

Austin Austin (1955/1962/1975)(1955/1962/1975)

A traditional view of meaning in language A traditional view of meaning in language at the time (which we have been exploring at the time (which we have been exploring as well) revolved around the assumptions as well) revolved around the assumptions that:that: The basic sentence type is declarative.The basic sentence type is declarative. The main use of language is to describe states The main use of language is to describe states of affairsof affairs

The meaning of utterances can be described in The meaning of utterances can be described in terms of truth and falsity (or the situations in terms of truth and falsity (or the situations in which an utterance would be true/false).which an utterance would be true/false).

However, there are many sentence types and However, there are many sentence types and usages that cannot really be said to be usages that cannot really be said to be “true” or “false”. This seems to cover only “true” or “false”. This seems to cover only declaratives, and not even all of them.declaratives, and not even all of them.

How to do things with How to do things with wordswords

Language—actually affecting the Language—actually affecting the world.world. — — I bet you $1 you can’t name the Super I bet you $1 you can’t name the Super Tuesday states. *(—You’re on).Tuesday states. *(—You’re on).

I ate a sandwich.I ate a sandwich. I promise to get up early and vote.I promise to get up early and vote. I need the day off.I need the day off. I (now) pronounce you man and wife.I (now) pronounce you man and wife. I hereby revoke your license for 90-days.I hereby revoke your license for 90-days. May I have the salt?May I have the salt?

NY, CA, MA, OH, VT, MN, CT, MD, RI, GA

Performative utterancesPerformative utterances

Certain utterances actually Certain utterances actually performperform an an act.act. I promise that I will do my homework.I promise that I will do my homework. I hereby declare this meeting adjourned.I hereby declare this meeting adjourned. #I hereby cook this cake.#I hereby cook this cake.

For performative utterances, whether For performative utterances, whether they are true or not is not at issue; they are true or not is not at issue; rather, we might ask whether they rather, we might ask whether they work work ((felicitousfelicitous) or not () or not (infelicitousinfelicitous).).

FelicityFelicity Generally speaking:Generally speaking:

A1. A1. There must be There must be an accepted conventional an accepted conventional procedure having a certain conventional procedure having a certain conventional effecteffect, the procedure to include the uttering , the procedure to include the uttering of certain words by certain persons in certain of certain words by certain persons in certain circumstances…circumstances…

A2. A2. The The particular persons and circumstances particular persons and circumstances must be appropriate must be appropriate for the invocation of the for the invocation of the particular procedure invoked…particular procedure invoked…

B1. B1. The procedure must be executed The procedure must be executed by all the by all the participants correctlyparticipants correctly……

B2.B2. …and …and completelycompletely…… Also: sincerity as specified by the Also: sincerity as specified by the procedure.procedure.

Misfire and abuseMisfire and abuse

A speech act will misfire if A speech act will misfire if the conditions aren’t met.the conditions aren’t met. I pronounce you man and wife.I pronounce you man and wife. You are hereby charged with You are hereby charged with treason.treason.

A speech act can be abused if A speech act can be abused if insincerly performed.insincerly performed. I bet you $1,000,000 you will fail I bet you $1,000,000 you will fail the test.the test.

Three elements of a Three elements of a speech actspeech act

Locutionary act: Locutionary act: speaking/writing a speaking/writing a grammatical utterance.grammatical utterance.

Illocutionary act:Illocutionary act: action intended action intended by the speaker.by the speaker.

Perlocutionary act:Perlocutionary act: effect intended effect intended by the speaker.by the speaker.

Arrest that man!Arrest that man! Urging, advising, …Urging, advising, … Persuading, …Persuading, …

Categorization of Categorization of speech actsspeech acts

Searle (1976): Five main typesSearle (1976): Five main types Representatives.Representatives. Commit to the truth of Commit to the truth of expressed propositionexpressed proposition

Asserting, concluding, …Asserting, concluding, … Directives.Directives. Attempts to get addressee to do Attempts to get addressee to do somethingsomething

Demanding, questioning, requesting, …Demanding, questioning, requesting, … Commissives.Commissives. Commit to a future course of actionCommit to a future course of action

Promising, threatening, offering, …Promising, threatening, offering, … Expressives.Expressives. Express a psychological stateExpress a psychological state

Thanking, apologizing, congratulating, …Thanking, apologizing, congratulating, … Declarations.Declarations. Effect immediate changes in the Effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs.institutional state of affairs.

Christening, firing, marrying, …Christening, firing, marrying, …

Defining speech acts à Defining speech acts à la Searlela Searle

Schema:Schema: Preparatory condition(s)Preparatory condition(s) Propositional condition(s)Propositional condition(s) Sincerity conditions(s)Sincerity conditions(s) Essential condition(s)Essential condition(s)

PromisingPromising (by S to H of A via P using E):(by S to H of A via P using E): Prep1: Prep1: H would prefer S’s doing A to his not doing A and S H would prefer S’s doing A to his not doing A and S believes H would prefer S’s doing A to not doing A.believes H would prefer S’s doing A to not doing A.

Prep2: Prep2: It is not obvious to both S and H that S will do A in It is not obvious to both S and H that S will do A in the normal course of events.the normal course of events.

Prop: Prop: In expressing that P, S predicates a future act A of S.In expressing that P, S predicates a future act A of S. Sinc: Sinc: S intends to do AS intends to do A Ess: Ess: the utterance E counts as an undertaking to do A.the utterance E counts as an undertaking to do A.

Defining speech acts à Defining speech acts à la Searlela Searle

Schema:Schema: Preparatory condition(s)Preparatory condition(s) Propositional condition(s)Propositional condition(s) Sincerity conditions(s)Sincerity conditions(s) Essential condition(s)Essential condition(s)

QuestioningQuestioning (by S to H via P using E):(by S to H via P using E): Prep1: Prep1: S does not know the missing information.S does not know the missing information. Prep2: Prep2: It is not obvious to S and H that H will It is not obvious to S and H that H will provide the information without being asked.provide the information without being asked.

(Prop: (Prop: No condition, any proposition.No condition, any proposition.)) Sinc: Sinc: S wants the missing information.S wants the missing information. Ess: Ess: The act counts as an attempt to elicit The act counts as an attempt to elicit this information from H.this information from H.

Implicit v. explicit Implicit v. explicit performativesperformatives

I hereby promise to pay you 35 I hereby promise to pay you 35 euros.euros.

I’ll give you 35 euros.I’ll give you 35 euros. (a promise, not a prediction or a (a promise, not a prediction or a statement).statement).

It’s a fuzzy line.It’s a fuzzy line.

Overriding convention:Overriding convention:indirect speech actsindirect speech acts

Can you pass the spinach?Can you pass the spinach? Why don’t you go find your teddy bear?Why don’t you go find your teddy bear?

Direct act: question, indirect act: request.Direct act: question, indirect act: request. I must ask you to leave.I must ask you to leave.

Direct act: statement, indirect act: Direct act: statement, indirect act: order/requestorder/request

It’s freezing in here.It’s freezing in here. Direct act: statement, indirect act: requestDirect act: statement, indirect act: request

So how do we know which one is meant?So how do we know which one is meant?

Literal and non-literalLiteral and non-literal Can you pass the spinach?Can you pass the spinach? (Please) pass the spinach.(Please) pass the spinach. I wish you wouldn’t tap your pencil.I wish you wouldn’t tap your pencil. (Please) stop tapping your pencil.(Please) stop tapping your pencil. Are you going to eat your peas?Are you going to eat your peas? (Please) eat your peas.(Please) eat your peas.

Searle: These work by addressing one of the Searle: These work by addressing one of the conditions.conditions.

Requesting (by S to H of A)Requesting (by S to H of A) Prep:Prep: H is able to perform A. H is able to perform A. Sinc: Sinc: S wants H to do A.S wants H to do A. Prop: Prop: S predicates a future act A of H.S predicates a future act A of H. Ess: Ess: Counts as an attempt by S to get H to do Counts as an attempt by S to get H to do A.A.

How we understand How we understand indirect speech actsindirect speech acts

Searle: reasoning fromSearle: reasoning from Felicity conditionsFelicity conditions ContextContext Principles of cooperative conversationPrinciples of cooperative conversation

Can you pass the salt? Can you pass the salt? (Quantity)(Quantity) I wish you wouldn’t tap your pencil.I wish you wouldn’t tap your pencil. (Relation)(Relation)

Convention:Convention:Are you capable of passing me the Are you capable of passing me the salt?salt?

Perception of the direct act:Perception of the direct act:Yes indeed.Yes indeed.

Why be indirect?Why be indirect? Close the window.Close the window. Can you close the window?Can you close the window? I don’t suppose you could close the I don’t suppose you could close the window, could you?window, could you?

I wonder if you’d mind closing the window.I wonder if you’d mind closing the window. It’s rather chilly in here.It’s rather chilly in here.

Diminishing threats to face (worthiness, Diminishing threats to face (worthiness, autonomy).autonomy).

I’d love to go, but I have to wash my I’d love to go, but I have to wash my hair, I have a headache, and it’s my hair, I have a headache, and it’s my mother’s birthday. Maybe another time.mother’s birthday. Maybe another time.

Librarians and limits Librarians and limits on QRon QR

Some librarian or other found every book.Some librarian or other found every book. One librarian, or one per book.One librarian, or one per book. [[SS some librarian found [ some librarian found [NPNP every book] ] every book] ] [[NPNP every book] every book]ii [ [SS some librarian found some librarian found ttii ]. ].

Some librarian knows that Pat found every Some librarian knows that Pat found every book.book. One librarian, but not one per book.One librarian, but not one per book.

In order to get the “one per book” interpretation, we In order to get the “one per book” interpretation, we would need to use QR to bring would need to use QR to bring every bookevery book up higher in up higher in the structure than the structure than some librarian or othersome librarian or other. This . This suggests that QR can only move a quantifier as high suggests that QR can only move a quantifier as high as the smallest S in which it is found.as the smallest S in which it is found. [[SS Some librarianSome librarian knows knows [[SS that Pat found that Pat found every every bookbook]]]]

[[NPNP every book] every book]ii [[SS some lib. knows some lib. knows [[SS that Pat found that Pat found ttii]]]]..

More about librariansMore about librarians

Some librarian or other found out which book Some librarian or other found out which book every student needed.every student needed. One librarian One librarian or one librarian per bookor one librarian per book.. Some librarian found out, for each student x, the Some librarian found out, for each student x, the book that x needed.book that x needed.

For each student x, there is a (possibly different) For each student x, there is a (possibly different) librarian that found out the book that x needed.librarian that found out the book that x needed.

That shouldn’t be possible:That shouldn’t be possible: [[SS some librariansome librarian found out found out

[[SS which book which book every student every student neededneeded]]]]..

Still more about Still more about librarianslibrarians

And it isn’t really…And it isn’t really… Some librarianSome librarianii or other found out which or other found out which book every boy stole from herbook every boy stole from herii.. One librarian, not one per boy.One librarian, not one per boy. #For every boy x, there is some librarian or #For every boy x, there is some librarian or other that found out the book that x stole from other that found out the book that x stole from her.her.

Why?Why? [[SS some librariansome librarianii found out found out

[[SS which book which book every boyevery boy stole from stole from herherii ]]]]

QR of questions?QR of questions?

Consider the pair-list kind of question Consider the pair-list kind of question What did everyone buy?What did everyone buy? interpreted as a interpreted as a series of questions series of questions What did Pat buy?What did Pat buy? What did Tracy buy?What did Tracy buy? … … defined by the defined by the smallest set that can count as smallest set that can count as everyoneeveryone.. Some librarian or other found outSome librarian or other found out

[which book every student needed].[which book every student needed].

For every question For every question QQ in the series in the series defined by Which book did every student defined by Which book did every student need?, some librarian or other found out need?, some librarian or other found out the answer to the answer to QQ..

QR of questions?QR of questions? Some librarian or other found out [which book every Some librarian or other found out [which book every student needed].student needed]. [[SS some librariansome librarian found out found out [[SS which book every student which book every student needed]needed] ]]

Some librarian or other found out every answer.Some librarian or other found out every answer. [[SS which book every student needed] which book every student needed]ii [ [SS some librarian some librarian found out found out ttii]]

It’s as if the entire embedded question acts as a It’s as if the entire embedded question acts as a quantifier. quantifier. That That isn’t moving out of its S.isn’t moving out of its S.

Idea: Idea: when a question is interpreted as a series of when a question is interpreted as a series of questions (the “pair-list” interpretation), it can questions (the “pair-list” interpretation), it can be considered a quantifier be considered a quantifier itselfitself..

Librarians continued…Librarians continued…

Some librarianSome librarianii or other found out which or other found out which book every boy stole from herbook every boy stole from herii.. For every question For every question QQ in the series defined by in the series defined by Which book did every boy steal from herWhich book did every boy steal from herii??, some , some librarianlibrarianii or other found out the answer to or other found out the answer to QQ..

[Which book did every boy steal from her][Which book did every boy steal from her]ii

some librariansome librarianii found out found out ttii..

The idea is that if the question is raised The idea is that if the question is raised up to a position above up to a position above some librariansome librarian in the in the tree, tree, some librariansome librarian no longer has no longer has scope/control over the pronoun scope/control over the pronoun herher, and so , and so the choice of (possibly different) the choice of (possibly different) librarians cannot determine the referent of librarians cannot determine the referent of herher..

Last point on Last point on librarians and QRlibrarians and QR

Some librarian or other thinks I found Some librarian or other thinks I found out which book every boy needed.out which book every boy needed. One librarian, not one-per-boy.One librarian, not one-per-boy.

[[SS Some librarian Some librarian or other thinks or other thinks [[SS I I found outfound out

[[SS which book which book every boyevery boy needed needed]] ]] ]]..

[[SS Some librarian Some librarian or other thinks or other thinks [[SS I I found outfound out

[[SS which book every boy needed] which book every boy needed] ]] ]]..