CARPENTRY• TIMBER: It is the name given to the

wood obtained from exogenous trees by cutting these trees after their full growth .• It is made suitable for Engineering or

building purpose by sawing and converting into various commercial sizes.

Advantages of timber• Very easy to work to give desire shape and

size.• Structural connections.• Light in weight than most of material.• Good resale value• Responds well to polishing and painting.• Combination of strength , durability,

lightness and economy.

Types of Timber

• EXOGENOUS OR OUTWARD GROWING

• ENDOGENOUS OR INWARD GROWING

SELECTION OF TIMBERDURABILITYWORKABILITYWEIGHTHARDNESSCOHESIVENESSELASTICITYRESISTANCE TO FIREABILITY TO RETAIN SHAPEPOLISHING

SEASONING• To reduce moisture content in

wood to make it suitable.• Unwanted or excess moisture is

not taken out, its presence would render wood unsuitable due to uneven shrinkage warping or shrinking

ADVANTAGES OF SEASONING• WOOD BECOMES HARD• WOOD BECOMES DURABLE• RESISTANCE TO SHOCK AND STRESS• BETTER WORKABILITY• No SHRINKAGE AFTER SEASONING• DEFECTS LIKE TWISTING AND BOWING DO

NOT OCCUR• RESISTANCE TO FIRE• IMPROVES painting and polishing.

METHODS OF SEASONING• NATURAL OR AIR SEASONING

• WATER SEASONING

• ARTIFICIAL or KILN SEASONING

DEFECTS IN SEASONING• NATURAL DEFECTS• DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION• DEFECTS DUE TO FUNGI and insects.

• SHAKE DEFECT: When tree is not cut even after attaining full maturity , cohesion is lost due to evaporation of moisture and gum.• HEART Shake; Star Shake;, Cup Shake

• IRREGULAR GRAINS OR TWISTED FIBREWhen fibres of the wood have different

angles with its axis , they are twisted.They may not be parallel to axis inspite the

piece is cut along grained by theses defects occurs

RIND GALLS / BURLSWounds created by irregularly broken

branches at place where they are part of itIt Creates a sort of cavity.

• DISTORTION:The shrinkage starts in most of the

woods when their moisture content falls below 25%.

If Seasoning is not uniform wood is sawn into thinner section, distortion takes place like Twisting, Cupping, Splitting, Warping Etc.

CARPENTRY

• Carpentry deals with the processing of wood to obtain desired shapes and sizes

Hand toolsLarge number of hand tools are used for

processing the wood1.Marking and measuring tools2.Cutting and parting tools3.Boring tools4.Striking tools5.Holding tools

Measuring tools

• Steel rule or engineer’s rule• Wooden folding rule• Steel tape

Steel rule

Wooden folding rule

Steel tape

Marking toolsImportant marking tools are1.Straight edge2.Try square3.Marking gauge4.Divider5.Marking knife

Straight edge

Try square

Meter square

Bevel square

Marking knife

Gauges• Gauges are used for cutting parallel lines at a

given distance from the edgeTypes of gauges1.MarKing gauge 7. divider 2.Mortise gauge 8. Caliper3.Panel gauge 9. spirit level4.Cutting gauge 10. 5.Wing compass6.Trammel

Marking gauge

Mortise gauge

Panel gauge• It is similar to marking gauge, but it has a long

stem which enables to mark the width of wide boards such as door panels

Cutting gauge

• Cutting gauge similar to marking gauge but it has sharp cutter instead of a pin

• It is used to cut lines across the grains• It is particularly adapted for dovetail joints

divider

calipers

caliper

Hand sawHand saw is used for cutting wood to the

desired shape and sizeParts of hand saw1.Handle2.BladeSpecifications of hand saw1.Length of blade– 600mm to 700mm2.Pitch--- 2.5mm to 8mm

Types of hand saw1. Rip saw2. Cross-cut saw3. Panel saw4. Tenon saw5. Dovetail saw6. Bow saw7. Coping saw8. Key hole saw9. Compass saw

Rip saw

Use of rip saw

Cross cut saw

Tenon saw

Dovetail saw

Bow saw

Coping saw

Key hole saw & compass saw

chisels• Chisels are used for cutting excess wood for

making joints• They are also used for shaping different

profiles in wood workParts of chisels1.handle 2.blade3.tang 4.shoulder5.neck

Chisel-parts

Types of chiselsThe following chisels are most commonly used1. Firmer chisel2. Bevelled edge firmer chisel3. Paring chisel4. Mortise chisel5. Socket chisel6. Gouges

Firmer

• Capable of doing heavy work• Used for joining and shaping the wood• Blade rectangular section with beveled edge• Length of blade– 125mm• Width—3 to 50mm

Beveled edge firmer chisel

• Similar to firmer chisel but sides are beveled• Used to cut sharp corners• Particularly adapted for dovetail joints• Length of blade—125mm• Width– 3 to 50mm• Blade is less strong than firmer chisel

Paring chisel

• It is chisel with long blade• Used to cut deep corners with with hand

pressure• Mostly used in pattern making

Mortise chisel

• These are robust can withstand heavy blows• It has thick stock and narrow cutting edge• Cutting edge is 6 to 13mm

Socket chisel• It is provided with socket instead of tang• The wooden handle is inserted into this socket• Socket prevents splitting of handle while

removing heavy stock

gouges

• These are also called round chisels• A gouge with a bevel on the outside is called a

firmer gouge• A gouge beveled inside is called scribing gouge• Used for making curved profiles

gauges

planes• Planes are used to produce flat and smooth

surfaces by cutting thin layers of wood• Special purpose planes are also available for

cutting grooves and rebatesParts of planes1.body or sole 2.cutting blade3.handle 4.knob

Parts of planes

Types of planes1. Jack plane

(a) wooden (b)metal2. Trying plane3. Smoothing plane4. Rebate plane5. Plough plane6. Router plane7. Spoke shave8. Special planes

Wooden jack plane• Used to general purpose• Consists wooden body, in which cutter is

fastened at an angle of 450 to the sole• Length of plane is 350 to 425mm• Blade is made of high carbon steel• Width of blade is 50 to 75mm• The cutting hardened and tempered

Wooden jack plane

Metal jack plane• The body is made of gray cast iron, it is

provided wooden handle at back and wooden knob at front

• A fine screw is used for adjusting depth of cut• Function is same as wooden jack plane• It is durable and gives better surface finish• Blade can be adjusted easily

Metal jack plane

Trying plane• Gives better surface finish• Longer than wooden jack plane• Cutter width is 60mm

Trying plane

Smoothening plane• It is similar to jack plane, but smaller in size,

and has no handle• Length varies from 200 to 300mm• Width of blade is 70mm• Used for finishing and smoothening surfaces

which are already planed by jack plane• It is handy and conveniently used to remove

uneven spots

Smoothening plane

Rebate plane• Small size plane length is 200mm• Blade width is from 12 to 50mm• Used to cut recess along the edge• The blade is fastened with the help of wedge

Rebate plane

Plough plane• Used for making deep grooves of standard

size• The depth of gauge is fixed on the body and

operated by thumb screw• Width of blades is 3 to 15mm in the steps of

2mm

Plough plane

Router plane• Used for finishing the grooves to a constant

depth which are formed by the chisel or saw

Spoke shave• Used for finishing the curved surfaces• The blade with a cap iron is held by screw, and

is adjustable to depth of cut .• It has a provision for holding at the both the

ends

Spoke shave

Boring toolsBoring tools are used for making holes in wood

Types of Boring tools(a)Bradawl(b)Gimlet(c)Brace(d)Auger(e)Bits

Bradawl & Gimlet

Bradawl & Gimlet

• Bradawl is used for boring of small holes for inserting the screws and nails

• Bradawl has chisel like point, and it is operated by hand

• Gimlet also hand operated tool used for making small holes for screws. It has a spiral flutes with screw like point .

Brace

• It is a boring tool used for making holes. It holds and rotates various types of bits for producing holes

• It is operated by hand• Most commonly used braces are Ratchet

brace & wheel brace

Ratchet brace

Ratchet brace

• Used for making large holes• It has wooden head and handle which is fitted

in bearings to turn easily• At the bottom it is provided with a chuck to

hold the bit• The ratchet positioned above the chuck helps

to rotate the bit in one direction only

Wheel brace

• Used for making small holes and drills• It has a chuck with self centering jaws which

holds the round and parallel shank drill• Drill bit is rotated by operating the crank

Wheel brace

Auger

Auger

• It is used for producing long deep holes of diameter ranging from 6 to 40mm

• It is a steel bar with an eye at the top in which a handle is fitted

• Bottom end is provided with screw• It has flutes to remove chips

Bits There are number of bits are used with Brace(i)Shell bit(ii)Forstner bit(iii)Counter sink bit(iv)Expansion bit(v)Centre bit(vi)Drill(vii)Reamer bit

Types of bits

Types of bits

BitsShell bit: it is used for boring holes where the

accuracy and finish are not important. Holes upto 12mm dia can be bored

Forstner bit: used to cut very clean hole. It has a small locating point and a circular rim to guide the bit. Used to make holes upto 30mm diameter

Bits• Counter sink bit: it does not bore holes, but it

is used for shaping the top of a screw hole so that the head of the screw lies below the surface of the wood

• Expansion bit: it has an adjustable cutter and can be used for boring shallow holes ranging from 13 mm to 125mm diameter

bits• Centre bit: used for boring holes across the

grains. Range is from 3mm to 35 mm diameter. It has a point with horizontal cutting lips. It is not suitable for deep holes

• Drill: has twisted flute with two cutting lips. Used in case of very hard wood

• Reamer bit : it has square taper body and is used for enlarging the holes to the required size

Striking tools

Striking toolsStriking tools are used to drive in nails and to

operate chisels. The most common striking tools are used in carpentry are hammers and mallets

Hammers : it is primarily used for driving in nails. The effectiveness of hammer is depends on the manner in which the blow is struck. For effective use hammer should be gripped at the end of hammer

Warrington hammer• Mostly used for bench work and light work• It is made of cast steel with tempered face

and peen• The wooden handle fits into the eye and steel

wedge is driven into form a rigid joint• The size of the hammer is designated by its

weight and is about 330 grams

Claw hammer• It is a dual purpose hammer

• It has a hammer face which is used to drive in nails, and claw at the other end for pulling out nails from the wood.

• Weight varies from 375 to 675 grams

Mallet • Mallet is used for operating chisels and gauges

• It is made up of hard wood and is provided with a handle

• The striking faces are made flat, and may be round and rectangular in cross-sections

Use of claw hammer

Holding tools• In wood working various devices are used to hold

and support the job while performing different operations

• The common holding devices are1. Bench 2. bench vice3. Bench 4. bench hook5. Bench hold fast 6. sash cramp7. Hand screw 8. G. Cramp

Bench • work bench is basic supporting device for many

operations. It is usually 1.5 to 1.8 m long, 0.7 to 0.9 m wide and 0.7m high

• Two or four carpenter vices are fitted on opposite sides to hold the jobs during the operation

• It is provided with accessories such as bench stop bench hook

Work bench

Bench vice

Bench vice• It is made up of gray cast iron or steel, and it has two

jaws one of which is fixed to the side of a bench and other is movable. The rotation of the handle causes the movable jaw to open and close.

• The job is held between the two jaws

• It is used for holding the work for planing, sawing and chiseling on the bench

Bench hook & bench hold fast

Bench hook• The bench hook is used to support the work

during planing or cutting

• It is made up of wood

• It can be placed conveniently on the work table

Bench hold fast

• It is used for securing work to the bench

• It consists of cast iron pillar, steel arm and screw with a handle

• The pillar drops into a hole bored in the bench, and screw operates the arm to hold work on the table

Sash clamp

Sash cramp• It used for holding wide work such as box or

frame constructions and jointed boards

• It consists of a steel bar fitted with two jaws, one of which is movable by a screw and other is fixed in to one of the holes by fastening pin

Hand screw

G-Clamp

G-Cramp• It is used for holding small work • It consists of a frame with a jaw at one end,

and movable jaw which is operated by a screw and a thumb nut at the other end

• It is also used to hold small parts for gluing

• The frame is made up of cast iron and screw with a jaw is made of steel

Carpentry operations1. Marking2. Sawing3. Planing4. Chiseling5. Boring6. Rebating7. Polishing8. Grooving and tongueing

Carpentry joints• The successful construction with wood

depends on satisfactory joining

• Before joining, the wood is made to accurate size with true surfaces

• The joints made in wood work are usually secured firmly by means of dowel pins or screws.

Types of carpentry joints• Halving joints• Mortise and tenon joint• Metre joint• Dovetail joint• Dowel joint• Butt or rubbed joint• Screw and slot joint• Tongue and grooved joint

Halving joint• These are used in construction of frames

• After marking and cutting the two parts were glued together with final external surfaces level

Corner halving joint

T- halving joint

Halving joints

Mortise and tenon joint• It is strong joint used in construction of doors,

windows and frames

• The tenon (tongue) fits into a mortise(mouth)

• The open martise and tenon joint is called briddle joint and is usually made in square sections

Mortise & tenon joint

Bridle joint

Metre joint

• It is formed by cutting the ends at an angle• The two ends are joined by nails or screws• This joint is used in photo frames

Mitre joint

Dowel joint• It is used as substitute for mortise and tenon

joint, and securing loose parts to a product

Dowel joint

Butt & rubbed joint• It is widening joint used to produce wide

boards like drawing boards, table tops• To make the joint the edges are planed with

trying plane and joined together with glue

Butt or rubbed joint

Screw & slot joint• This joint is used for thick wooden pieces

which do not glue readily

• On piece carries the screw while the other has a hole for head of the screw and a slot for shank

Screw & slotted joint

Tongue & grooved joint

Tongue & grooved joint• It is widening joint used for flanks and boards• This is prepared by cutting a groove on one

edge and a matching tongue on the other• The tongue is fitted into groove• Sometimes grooves are made on both the

edges and a separate tongue is inserted in it. Such joints are called inserted tongue and groove joint