Asset Ownership and Egalitarian Decision-making in Dual-headed

Households in EcuadorCarmen Diana Deere and Jennifer Twyman

Center for Latin American Studies and Food & Resource Economics

University of Florida

Motivation: Understanding Women’s EmpowermentWhat is it?

Process of acquiring the ability to make choices

Includes: Resources, agency, and achievementsAgency: “The ability to define one’s goals and

act upon them” (Kabeer 1999: 438)How is it measured?

Women’s participation in household decision-making

Usually autonomous decision-making or having the final say in decisions

Central Questions:Are women empowered only when they are making most household decisions autonomously?An alternative vision of empowerment: when

women are able to negotiate as equals with their husbands to reach joint decisions.

What factors promote egalitarian decision-making?• Feminist theory: Factors that increase their

bargaining power within the household

Main Proposition:Women’s bargaining position within marriage

partly depends on their fall-back position How well off they would be in case of household

dissolution (separation, divorce, widowhood)Asset ownership by women an important

component

The problem:Until recently few household surveys collected

individual-level information on assets

2. Methods and Data Part of 3-country study (Ecuador, Ghana, India)

financed by MDG3 Fund of Dutch Foreign Ministry

Ecuador study based at FLACSO, Quito6 months of qualitative field work in 3 provinces

(focus groups, key informant interviews, asset market study)

Nationally representative survey of 2,892 households (EAFF 2010) Truncated: doesn’t include the wealthiest Employed both household and individual-level

questionnaires

The respondents• Adult couple in dual-headed households (68.5%)•When feasible, answered HH questionnaire together; Individual questionnaire separately• Adult male (6.7%) or female (24.8%) in single-headed households

How men and women report making their own decisions

How decision is

made Men Women

Alone 52% 32%

Joint 47% 63%

Asks permission 1% 3%

Someone else 0% 1%

Not applicable 0% 1%

Total 100% 100%

Decision to work Decision to spend one’s own money

How decision is

made Men Women

Alone 18% 29%

Part joint 15% 10%

All joint 65% 53%

Someone else 1% 1%

Not applicable 1% 7%

Total 100% 100%n = 1,776

Symmetry in decision-making: Whether both spouses make the decision regarding themselves in a similar fashion (paired)

 

a)  Whether or not to work

b) If earn or receive income,

how to spend

Each alone 386 21.7 159 9.0

Each partly alone & partly jointly

- - 96 5.4

Each makes jointly

627 35.3 736 41.4

Each asks permission or someone else

1 0.1 4 0.2

Differ 762 42.9 781 44.0

Total 1776 100 1776 100

The dependent variable

  Decision

Each partner

says joint*

(symmetry)

  %

Partners agree that the other

makes decision jointly

(agreement)

  %

Partners disagree that the

other makes

decision jointly

  %

To work

625 100

488 77.9 138 21.9

To spend

733 100

309 42.2 424 57.8

Symmetry and agreement: Egalitarian decision-making

3. ModelsFocus on 2 decisions

Decision to workDecision on

spending one’s own money

Binary dependent variable logistic regression modelsIf egalitarian = 1Otherwise = 0

3 Models for each decisionBaselineAsset ownershipWife’s share of

couple’s wealth

Explanatory VariablesAsset ownershipWife’s share of

couple’s wealthWho is employed?Who earns the most?Wife’s age, Age

DifferenceWife’s Education,

Education Difference

Locale: Rural/Urban, Coast/Sierra

Consensual Union/Marriage

EthnicityPrevious

RelationshipsSocioeconomic

status: Transfer Payment (“bono”)

Explanatory VariablesWho earns the

most?Wife 7%Husband 74%Earn same 10%Disagree 10%

Asset ownership (housing, land, other real estate)Wife only 8%Husband only 12%Both 45%Neither 34%

Continuous VariablesVariable Mea

nStd. Dev.

Median

Min.

Max.

Wife’s age 41.3 14.2 39 18 90

Husband’s age 45.3 15.3 43 18 93

Age Difference 4.1 6.3 3 -23 42

Wife’s years of schooling 8.1 4.6 7 0 20

Husband’s schooling 8.4 4.5 7 0 20

Schooling Difference 0.4 3.5 0 -11 14

Wife’s share of couple’s wealth 0.46 0.25 0.5 0 1

Results—Asset OwnershipDecision to work Decision to spend

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s

share of wealth

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share

of wealthCoefficient-

-β(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)

Wife only owns asset(s)

-0.467*(0.244)

- -0.637*(0.335)

-

Husband only owns asset(s)

-0.023(0.190)

- -0.114(0.261

-

Both own asset(s)

0.186(0.138)

- 0.351**(0.177)

-

(Neither own assets)

Results—Wife’s share of wealthDecision to work Decision to spend

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s

share of wealth

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share

of wealthCoefficient-

-β(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)

Woman's share of wealth

-2.294***(0.678) -

2.270**(0.921)

Woman's share of wealth squared

--2.683***(0.700) -

-2.574***(0.928)

Maximum: 0.43 0.44

How wife’s share of wealth impacts the odds of egalitarian work decisions

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

Wife’s share of wealth

Od

ds

of

eg

ali

tari

an

work

decis

ion

Max Odds (1.24), wife’s share = 0.43

Results—Employment Decision to work Decision to spend

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s

share of wealth

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share

of wealthCoefficient-

-β(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)

Wife only- - 0.967**

(0.458)0.990**(0.459)

Both- - 1.893***

(0.190)1.900***(0.190)

Neither- - 0.656

(0.469)0.595

(0.471)

(Husband only) - -

Results—Who earns the most?Decision to work Decision to spend

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s

share of wealth

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share

of wealthCoefficient-

-β(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)

Wife earns the most

0.123(0.476)

0.100(0.224)

0.153(0.299)

0.115(0.299)

Earn the same

0.476***(0.177)

0.474***(0.177)

0.853***(0.207)

0.876***(0.206)

Disagree about earnings

-0.132(0.191)

-0.127(0.191)

0.216(0.207)

0.233(0.207)

(Husband earns the most)

Results—RegionsDecision to work Decision to spend

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share of wealth

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share of wealth

Coefficient--β(Std.

Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)

Coefficient--β(Std.

Error)

Coefficient--β

(Std. Error)

Rural (Urban)

0.290**(0.130)

0.308**(0.128)

0.459***(0.164)

0.516***(0.161)

Coast (Highlands)

0.203(0.126)

0.215*(0.126)

-0.418***(0.158)

-0.410***(0.157)

Results—Model StatisticsDecision to work Decision to spend

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share of wealth

Model II—Asset

Ownership

Model III—Wife’s share of wealth

Number of cases (N)

1776 1775 1776 1775

Likelihood ratio chi-square (df)

46.87 (20)***

54.79 (19)***

290 (23)***

286 (22)***

Pseudo R2 0.0224   0.0263 0.1767 0.1744

Models in appendix (for comparative analysis with

Ghana and India)Different sub-samples

Decision to work: couples who both work (n= 827)

Decision on spending: dropped those who reported “not applicable” (n= 1635)

Socio-economic status differentPreviously, used the Bono (CCT)Now, Gross Household Wealth

Reconciliated, based on both spouses responses Imputed missing values

Main changes with new sub-samples:For both decision to work and spending

decision:Coefficient of both own assets now positive and

significant*** Coefficient of wife only owns assets still negative

but not significantCoefficient of woman’s share of wealth still

positive and significant and non-linearCoefficient of couple’s absolute wealth not

significant

Tentative ConclusionsWomen’s ownership of assets in dual-headed

households is associated with egalitarian decision-makingWhen both husband and wife own assets, they are

more likely to make egalitarian decisionsWife’s share of couple’s wealth is associated with

egalitarian decision-making Maximum likelihood of egalitarian decisions when

women own about 44% of couple’s wealthCouples are also more likely to engage in egalitarian

decision-making when both employed, and when husband and wife earn about the same

Future (on-going) workAutonomous decision-makingMultinomial dependent variableIndex of decision-making (including

decisions over health care, birth control), but can’t do agreement (only symmetry)

Other outcomes:Agricultural decision-makingDomestic violencePoverty status

Thank you!

For the country studies & comparative report see:

http://genderassetgap.iimb.ernet.in

Table A1. Logistic regression results for models of egalitarian decision making for the decision to work; Ecuador, 2010

Baseline Model Model I Model II  

  Coeff. (β)Std. Err. of β   Coeff. (β)

Std. Err. of β   Coeff. (β)

Std. Err. of β

 

Intercept -1.455 *** 0.466 -1.433 *** 0.473 -1.827 *** 0.526  

Woman's age 0.006 0.008 -0.011 0.008 -0.008 0.008  

Age difference (man's age - woman's age) 0.006 0.015 0.004 0.015 0.007 0.015

 

Woman's years of schooling 0.033 0.023 0.036 0.023 0.031 0.023  

Schooling difference (man - woman) 0.033 0.027 0.036 0.027 0.033 0.026

 

Rural (Urban) 0.489 *** 0.184 0.370 ** 0.188 0.448 ** 0.185  

Coast (Highlands) 0.216 0.181 0.208 0.184 0.223 0.182  

Consensual Union (Married) 0.013 0.209 0.098 0.213 0.058 0.212  

Couple's wealth (in thousands of USD) -0.0003 0.006 -0.001 0.002 -0.0003 0.002

 

Previous Relationships  

(Neither in a previous relationship)

 

Woman only has been in a previous relationship -0.066 0.315 -0.036 0.320 -0.034 0.320

 

Man only has been in a previous relationship -0.474 0.329 -0.505 0.328 -0.508 0.329

 

Both have been in a previous relationship -0.920 ** 0.438 -0.744 0.454 -0.799 * 0.450

 

Who earns more  

(Man earns the most)  

Woman earns the most 0.354 0.327 0.309 0.333 0.298 0.327  

Earn the same 0.751 *** 0.222 0.706 *** 0.225 0.716 *** 0.225  

Disagree about earnings -0.044 0.229 -0.106 0.233 -0.069 0.230  

Assets & Wealth  

(Neither own real estate)  

Wife only owns asset(s) -0.532 0.405  

Husband only owns asset(s) -0.030 0.307  

Both own asset(s) 0.466 ** 0.213  

Woman's share of wealth 2.426 ** 1.140  

Woman's share of wealth squared -2.508 ** 1.128

 

 

Number of cases (N) 827 827 827  

Likelihood ratio chi-square (df) 26.96 (14)** 38.33 (17)*** 32.73 (16)***  

Pseudo R2 0.0321   0.043   0.038  

    

Table A2. Logistic regression results for models of egalitarian decision making for the decision about how to spend one's own income, Ecuador 2010

Baseline Model Model I Model II

  Coeff. (β) Std. Err. of β   Coeff. (β) Std. Err. of β   Coeff. (β) Std. Err. of β

Intercept -2.275 *** 0.408 -2.260 *** 0.414 -2.710 *** 0.435

Woman's age -0.016 ** 0.007 -0.021 *** 0.007 -0.017 ** 0.007

Age difference (man's age - woman's age) -0.008 0.012 -0.010 0.012 -0.007 0.012

Woman's years of schooling 0.032 * 0.019 0.035 * 0.019 0.030 0.019

Schooling difference (man - woman) 0.031 0.022 0.036 * 0.022 0.032 0.022

Rural (Urban) 0.446 *** 0.156 0.348 ** 0.160 0.412 *** 0.157

Coast (Highlands) -0.396 *** 0.151 -0.414 *** 0.158 -0.388 ** 0.152

Consensual Union (Married) -0.286 0.185 -0.197 0.189 -0.234 0.186

Couple's wealth (in thousands of USD) 0.000 0.002 -0.001 0.002 0.000 0.002

Previous Relationships

(Neither in a previous relationship)

Woman only has been in a previous relationship 0.053 0.267 0.102 0.268 0.105 0.268

Man only has been in a previous relationship -0.003 0.254 -0.003 0.258 -0.025 0.257

Both have been in a previous relationship -0.102 0.335 0.047 0.335 0.039 0.341

Who is employed (outside the home)?

(Husband only)

Wife only 0.872 * 0.497 0.942 ** 0.495 0.935 * 0.493

Both 1.758 *** 0.191 1.766 *** 0.192 1.772 *** 0.191

Neither 0.731 0.462 0.793 * 0.465 0.741 0.467

Who earns more

(Man earns the most)

Woman earns the most 0.163 0.308 0.134 0.310 0.113 0.307

Earn the same 0.877 *** 0.202 0.838 *** 0.203 0.844 *** 0.203

Disagree about earnings 0.204 0.206 0.145 0.209 0.173 0.207

Assets & Wealth

(Neither own real estate)

Wife only owns asset(s) -0.461 0.347

Husband only owns asset(s) -0.228 0.271

Both own asset(s) 0.455 ** 0.182

Woman's share of wealth 2.649 *** 0.932

Woman's share of wealth squared -2.792 *** 0.937

Number of cases (N) 1635 1635 1635

Likelihood ratio chi-square (df) 179.24 (17)*** 189.58 (20)*** 183.96 (19)***

Pseudo R2 0.144   0.154   0.150

5. Comparative Perspectives on the Gender Wealth Gap

Country Female Share of Physical Wealth (%)

Ecuador 53.0

Ghana 30.2

Karnataka, India 19.0

Explanatory VariablesRural 35%,

Urban 65%Coast 53%

Highlands, 47%Consensual unions

35%Married 65%

Previous RelationshipsWife only 7%Husband only 9%Both 8%Neither 77%

Explanatory VariablesMigrated

(previously)Wife only 1%Husband only 3%Both 1%Neither 95%

Who is employed?Wife only 4%Husband only 45%Both 47%Neither 4%