Caribbean Politics & Society Worksheets

BARBADOS COMMUNITY COLLEGE

CORE 102:

CARIBBEAN POLITICS & SOCIETY

Worksheets 1 – 14

Prepared & Compiled By: Roger Worrell

ROGER WORRELL Jan, 2007

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Table of Contents WORKSHEET 1 - PART 1: DEFINITION AND NATURE OF POLITICS/ THE STATE & POLITICAL SOCIALISATION..................................................................................................4

THE STATE ...........................................................................................................................5 THEORIES OF THE STATE..................................................................................................6

CARIBBEAN STATES.......................................................................................................7 SOCIALISATION ..................................................................................................................7

Types of Socialisation..........................................................................................................8 TUTORIAL ISSUES...........................................................................................................8

IDEOLOGY IN THE CARIBBEAN .......................................................................................8 What is an ideology?............................................................................................................9 Characteristics of the left: ....................................................................................................9 Characteristics of the right: ................................................................................................10

IDEOLOGIES.......................................................................................................................10 Ideology in the Caribbean: .................................................................................................11 Relevance of ideology to society........................................................................................12 ISSUES:............................................................................................................................12

WORKSHEET 2 - THE CONSTITUTION...............................................................................13 FUNCTIONS: ...................................................................................................................13 The three (3) main features of the constitution are:.............................................................14 General provisions of the constitution ................................................................................16 The Branches/Structure of Government .............................................................................17 Tutorial Questions .............................................................................................................17

WORKSHEET 3 - THE BILL OF RIGHTS..............................................................................19 Provisions:.............................................................................................................................19 Emergency powers ................................................................................................................20

Tutorial Questions for consideration ..................................................................................21 WORKSHEET 4 - The Constitutional Offices .......................................................................22

Prime Minister/Opposition Leader/Head of State. ..................................................................22 The Prime Minister ............................................................................................................22 Powers ..............................................................................................................................22 Question: ...........................................................................................................................24 Removal ............................................................................................................................24

The Opposition Leader ..........................................................................................................25 Role of the Opposition.......................................................................................................25 Appointment......................................................................................................................25 Powers of the Opposition Leader: ......................................................................................25

The Head of State..................................................................................................................26 Powers of the Governor General........................................................................................26 Tutorial Questions .............................................................................................................27

WORKSHEET 5 - AMENDING/CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION................................28 Constitutional amendments in Barbados:................................................................................28

Tutorial question: ..............................................................................................................29 Sir Henry Forde Constitutional Commission Report ...............................................................29

Tutorial questions ..............................................................................................................29


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WORKSHEET 6 - WESTMINSTER MODEL OF GOVERNMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN? 30

The main characteristics of the Westminster model are:..........................................................30 Questions to ponder:..........................................................................................................32

WORKSHEET 7 - THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM IN THE CARIBBEAN................................33 REASONS FOR ELECTIONS..............................................................................................33 FIRST PAST THE POST SYSTEM......................................................................................34

Advantages and disadvantages of FPPS. ............................................................................35 PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION..............................................................................35

Disadvantages and Advantages of Proportional Representation..........................................36 Tutorial Questions .............................................................................................................37

WORKSHEET 8 - PART II: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLITICAL SYS. .........................................................................................................................................38

Colonialism/Imperialism and Neo-colonialism ........................................................................38 IMPERIALISM.....................................................................................................................39

Reasons for Colonialism/Imperialism:.................................................................................39 The philosophy of colonialism/imperialism: ........................................................................40 Tutorial issues....................................................................................................................40

NEO-COLONIALISM ..........................................................................................................40 Tutorial Questions .............................................................................................................41

WORKSHEET 9 - 1930's : Struggles of the Working Class People (Disturbances, Riots or Revolts.)....................................................................................................................................42

The general conditions...........................................................................................................42 The Italian invasion of Ethiopia:.........................................................................................43

THE MOYNE COMMISSION REPORT (1938) ..................................................................44 Major recommendations.....................................................................................................44 Assessment ........................................................................................................................45

The Major Consequences of the Riots....................................................................................45 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................45 Tutorial Questions .............................................................................................................46

WORKSHEET 10 - Political Parties and Trade Unions..............................................................47 Political Parties......................................................................................................................47

Characteristics: ..................................................................................................................48 Functions:..........................................................................................................................48 Objectives and Programmes ...............................................................................................49 Tutorial Exercises ..............................................................................................................49

Trade Unions.........................................................................................................................50 Definitions: ........................................................................................................................50 Problems faced by early unions: .........................................................................................51 Advantages of political unionism (Barrow- Giles)..............................................................52 Disadvantages of political unionism:...................................................................................52 Major challenges facing trade unions today: .......................................................................52 Tutorial Exercises ..............................................................................................................52

WORKSHEET 11 - INDEPENDENCE, SOVEREIGNTY AND DECOLONISATION ...........53 Characteristics of Independence.............................................................................................53


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Dates of Independence.......................................................................................................54 Challenges of Independence: ..............................................................................................55 Tutorial exercise ................................................................................................................55

Decolonisation.......................................................................................................................55 Tutorial Exercise ...............................................................................................................56

WORKSHEET 12 - PART 111: SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CHALLENGES...57 The IMF and Structural Adjustment in the Caribbean.............................................................57

The International Monetary Fund.......................................................................................57 Structural Adjustment ........................................................................................................58

Reasons for Structural Adjustment.........................................................................................59 IMF Conditionalities/policies .............................................................................................59 Consequences ....................................................................................................................60 Tutorial Exercises ..............................................................................................................61

WORKSHEET 13 - CARIBBEAN INTEGRATION: FROM FEDERATION TO CSME .........62 Factors encouraging regional unity.........................................................................................62 Factors encouraging regional fragmentation...........................................................................63

Advantages of regional integration.....................................................................................63 Forms of Integration..............................................................................................................64

The Federal Experiment 1958-62. ......................................................................................64 Reasons why the Federation failed .....................................................................................65

CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Area) 1968-73 ..................................................................65 CARICOM (Caribbean community/Caribbean Common Market) . .........................................65 Caribbean Single Market & Economy....................................................................................66

Background .......................................................................................................................66 Rationale ...........................................................................................................................66 Tutorial Question:..............................................................................................................68

Other institutions that reflect regional integration...................................................................68 Worksheet #14 - Globalisation...................................................................................................69

The Four Dimensions of Globalisation ...................................................................................69 Aspects of Globalisation. ...................................................................................................69 What's driving globalisation ...............................................................................................70

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) ..................................................................................71 AIMS. ...............................................................................................................................71 FUNCTIONS. ...................................................................................................................71

Free Trade and Trade Liberalisation.......................................................................................71 Guiding Principles..............................................................................................................72

Trade as a Weapon. ...............................................................................................................72 Advantages. .......................................................................................................................72 Disadvantages....................................................................................................................73

Implications\Effects of Globalisation for the Caribbean. .........................................................73 The Growth of Regionalism...................................................................................................74 References and Suggested Reading: .......................................................................................74


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BARBADOS COMMUNITY COLLEGE CORE 102: CARIBBEAN POLITICS & SOCIETY

WORKSHEET 1 - PART 1: DEFINITION AND NATURE OF POLITICS/ THE STATE & POLITICAL SOCIALISATION

Politics arise out of the basic features of human social life: the fact of differing interests and viewpoints. Society is comprised of various social groups, all possessing their own customs, values and expectations. This creates differences, tension and conflict. This conflict must be managed, contained or resolved, otherwise anarchy results.

Scare resources also add to the conflicts, for one individual or group to get more, mean that another individual or group has to get less. Political parties are formed and ideologies are adopted to determine whose interest will be represented and which class or classes will benefit from the distribution of society’s scarce resources. It must be noted that their must be an effort to represent the society as a whole.

Politics is therefore concerned with , “All those social interactions that are directly or Indirectly designed to, and that actually do obtain binding decisions about who shall have what, when and how in a social system.”(Ton de Vos).

Politics is the arena where conflicts arising from such disagreements are fought out. Such conflicts must be dealt with. The ultimate aim is to preserve and promote the existence and continuity of the state.

Sociologists argue that “politics is about power- politics occurs when there are differentials of power.” Therefore any social relationship where there are differentials of power is political.

Politics is also about the use of power to influence behaviour. This power is in the hands of those who control the government. People and parties control the government in a democracy by competing in and winning general elections.

One definition of politics: it is about decision making, choices have to be made with respect to decisions that are legally binding. Political Science can be described as the study of:

· The process whereby binding decisions are made · The decisions themselves · The impact of those decisions.


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One can therefore say that politics is about the study of government and how it works to influence behaviour.

What is meant by the term government?

What is meant by “to govern”?

Please note that the government and the party in power are not synonymous. A political party (some members) is temporarily in control of the government. This is as a result of an election.

The arena of politics is the political system. According to Almond and Powell, “...the political system includes not only governmental institutions such as legislatures, courts and administrative agencies, but all structures in their political aspects...such as kinship ties, assassinations, riots...as well as formal organisations like parties, interests groups and media of communication.”

THE STATE

Nb: The party in power controls the government and hence exercises the power of the state. Every citizen in the modern world is the subject of a state. He is legally bound to obey its orders and his life is set by the norms that it imposes. The state has supreme law-making authority. It has the power to enforce its laws upon all who live within its boundaries. The state is therefore a compulsory form of association. Whereas all other associations are voluntary in character and can bind the individual only if he chooses membership of them; once he is a resident of a state, legally he has no choice but to obey its commands (laws).The state is therefore supreme over all other institutions/organisations: it receives habitual obedience but renders obedience to no one. Max Weber said, “...a state is a human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.” Sir John Salmond described a state as,

“A society of men established for the maintenance of peace and justice within a determined territory by way of force” A state possesses the following features: • a more or less fixed territory • a definite and fixed population, more or less with a common history, language, culture

and identity. • compliance of its population with the laws of the state, the state having a monopoly of

the legitimate use of physical force; • a government or body of persons exercising the power and authority of the state


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through the offices and institutions of the state. • formal sovereignty and independence that ascribe to the state exclusive right to

exercise undivided authority over the population and territory within its jurisdiction, including the making of treaties, agreements, war and peace, and the conduct of foreign policy with other countries (Sandiford, 2000:9-10).

The state exercises: Legislative power, Executive power and judicial power.

THEORIES OF THE STATE Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): He believed that before states came into existence men lived in an unhappy natural condition where their lives were “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.” In order to escape from this situation they surrendered their rights to do as they pleased (sovereignty) to a powerful ruler (the sovereign) who ensured their safety.

John Locke (1632-1704):

He felt that the lot of early man was a happy one and that he surrendered only some of his rights to the sovereign in return for the latter’s promise to keep him safe. Locke felt that if the sovereign failed in his duty he could be removed and replaced by one willing and able to protect his subjects. This view of the state has been to some extent accepted by the founding fathers of the USA. (See the Declaration of Independence).

The state therefore regulates behaviour. It orders us not to kill and punishes us for violation of its orders. It can use coercion to secure obedience to its rules. The state’s rules are legal not because they are good, but because they emanate from the state. Every state is a territorial society divided into government and governed. The government being a body of persons within the state who apply the legal rules and are entitle to use coercion.

The state is thus a society of individuals generally compelled to a certain way of life. All conduct in the society must conform to that way. The rules which settle its character are the laws of the state, and they are primary i.e. sovereign over all other rules (if they are written). In this society, the individuals who make and enforce the rules are termed the government; the portion of rules which settle (a) how such rules are to be made (b) the manner in which they are to be changed (c) who are to make them, is called the constitution of the state.


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Tutorial Questions: 1) What benefits/advantages can be derived from the study of politics? 2) What are the characteristics of a state? Type of States 1) Democratic states 2) Authoritarian states

CARIBBEAN STATES

The Caribbean state apparatus emerged out of imperialism and colonialism (1960's onwards) as an integral part of the British Empire. According to Carl Stone, “It was set up to protect British imperial interests and was structured according to the political culture of the British ruling classes.”

Control of the state was transferred to locals in the 1960's. The aim of those who were placed in control of the newly independent state was to define a new role for the state; to allocate the scarce resources of the region to satisfy the needs of local people. However due to neo-colonialism Caribbean states are still heavily influenced by external forces.

QUESTION: How can Caribbean states best be described?

SOCIALISATION

This is the process by which individuals learn the culture (beliefs, practices, attitudes and behaviours) of their society. This process starts at birth and ends at death. The norms and values of the society are inculcated into members of the society by institutions.

Political socialisation is:

“....all political learning, formal and informal, deliberate and unplanned at every stage of the life cycle, including not only explicitly political learning but also nominally non-political learning that affects political behaviour, such as learning of politically relevant personality characteristics. ”(Fred Greenstein, in “Political Socialisation.” International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences. Vol. 14)

Political socialisation can be defined as “that process whereby society develops attitudes and feelings toward politics in each of its members... (it)... is political upbringing.” (Trevor Munroe).


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Types of Socialisation

1) Primary socialisation: occurs through relationships or processes that are relatively informal, unstructured and unorganised. e.g. the family or household unit, the peer group.

2) Secondary socialisation: takes place through mechanisms that are more formal, structured and more organised. e.g. the school or educational institution, church or religious institution, mass media, political party. Some of the institutions are specifically set for this purpose. These institutions are as follows: 1) The Family 2) School 3) Church 4) Mass Media 5) Peer Groups 6) Work Places.

TUTORIAL ISSUES 1) Can a person be Stateless and what are the benefits (if any) of belonging to a state? 2) What is meant by “political socialisation”? 3) What are the purposes of socialisation? 4) Identify how the institutions listed above perform their respective role of political

socialisation. 5) What do the following terms mean: Political culture, political behaviour, political

participation, political values and political attitudes.

IDEOLOGY IN THE CARIBBEAN

Issues: What are ideologies and why are they important? Identify the various ideologies What is the relevance of ideologies to the Caribbean?

According to Sandiford (2000:106), three basic questions are asked about the purpose of the state and the government: 1) What is the proper role of the state and government? 2) What functions should be performed by the state and the government, and what

should be left to the individual? 3) To what extent should the state and government regulate, control, restrict, and

restrain the conduct of the individual?


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According to Harold Laski (1931:12), “The authority of a state is a function of its ability to satisfy the effective demands that are made upon it. Its subjects desire, for instance, security for their persons and property. The legal imperatives of a state are then directed to satisfying that desire. [If] its subjects wish to worship God in their own way, without the imposition of prohibitions upon any particular form of religious belief... the state makes religious toleration one of its legal imperatives.”

What is an ideology?

According to Sandiford (2000:188), “An ideology is a more or less consistent and passionately held cluster of political or other basic values, ideas, viewpoints and theories, describing a certain set of circumstances, pointing out the deficiencies there in, and prescribing a plan or approach for creating better conditions and institutional arrangements. Those doctrines constitute a programme that guides an individual or group (such as a political party, my words) to action.”

Ideology therefore reflects the ruling ideas (Marxist view) and belief structures of society.

As Marx said the ruling ideas are the ideas of the ruling classes. The governing structure of society (the superstructure) - its laws, political institutions and culture are reflective of a particular ideology. Note that ideology drives the shape and character of a society but a society also drives the shape of an ideology.

Ideologies are generally either of the Left or of the Right. Some are described as centre; left of centre and right of centre.

Characteristics of the left:

1) Seek social and political change (sometimes violently-see Grenada 1979-83)

2) Belief that education can change people 3) Belief that the rights and needs of the society as a whole may be superior to the

needs of the individual. 4) Church and state should remain separate 5) State should own and control the means of production for the benefit of all 6) Belief in the doctrine of equality


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Characteristics of the right:

1) A belief in tradition, stability- maintaining the status quo 2) A belief in religion and education as a means of maintaining the status quo. 3) Belief in individual freedom- acceptance of human inequality as being natural; 4) Acceptance of the position of the ruling classes- emphasis on ownership of property

5) Limited government- reduce the welfare state and emphasise law and order

IDEOLOGIES

1) Liberalism: an ideology that is driven by the needs of the individual in society. The needs and interests of the individual take precedence. There is a strong emphasis on the individual in society with issues of private interests, private property taking centre stage. Linked with Capitalism.

Neville Duncan noted that “Liberals select, out of the total universe of possible individual rights, the right to private property as the pre-eminent human right.”

Liberal thinkers: Adam Smith- Capitalism; John Locke- separation of powers; John Stuart Mill- Utilitarianism: ‘Greatest happiness for the greatest numbers”

2) Democracy: Definition: a system “for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote.” (Joseph Schumpeter)

Aristotle referred to democracy as “Government of the few watched by the many.”

Abraham Lincoln: “...government of the people, by the people and for the people.”

Characteristics of Democracy :(See C. Barrow-Giles) 1) Elected officials control the state and make major decisions. 2) Elected officials are accountable to the people 3) Powers of the executive is limited by parliament, judiciary etc-separation of

powers. 4) People have the right to form parties and contest elections 5) Various ways to freely express your opinion 6) Number of guaranteed rights and freedoms-found in a constitution


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7) The rule of law 8) An independent media 9) Military is controlled by elected civilians.

Liberal Democracy is a form of democracy. Note that Capitalism seems to go hand in hand with this form of democracy. An alternative to the democratic (right wing) ideology is the Authoritarian Ideology (left wing). Marxism which can lead to Socialist and Communist ideologies falls into this category. Critics of this form of ideology tend to focus on and emphasised its lack of respect for individual and group rights and freedoms.

Ideology in the Caribbean:

The Alternative Path of Development: “Socialist” experiments: 1) Jamaica: Democratic socialism under Michael Manley in the 70's and 80's. 2) Guyana: Co-operative Socialism under Forbes Burnham in the 80's 3) Grenada: Democratic Centralism under Maurice Bishop in the early 80's The premises of the Alternative Path to Development included: - An anti-imperialist stance in foreign policy (perceived by some as anti-American) - Closer association with socialist countries esp. Cuba - eliminate, as much as possible, foreign control and influence over the economy e.g.

through nationalisation. - Mixed economy - Creation of an egalitarian society

- democratise the society: seek to increase participation of civil society in the economic and political decision making

- Emphasis on educational upliftment: creation of new attitudes towards socialist values (re-socialisation).

Note that many Caribbean leaders adopted a mixed approach to governance and management of their economies. That is they incorporated features of the Left and the Right in their policies


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Relevance of ideology to society

Ideology is relevant to a society since it gives direction to and shapes the character of institutions in the society. It drives the political socialisation process and informs the decisions that people will take of a moral, social, political and economic nature. In other words our daily realities are underpinned by ideological concepts and concerns.

ISSUES:

1) Which ideology, if any, has any relevance to Barbados and the Caribbean? 2) Should we be concerned about ideologies or should we do what we think is right? 3) Can any political or economic model/system eliminate poverty and inequality? 4) Are poverty and inequality man made? 5) Are all men (oops persons) equal in the eyes of God? What does that really men?

Roger Worrell January, 2007

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WORKSHEET 2 - THE CONSTITUTION Every government has an organisational structure that defines the specific responsibilities of its public officials. Some officials make the laws, others see to their enforcement. Taxes must be levied and collected and revenues spent (in the public interests). There must be provision for preserving the domestic peace and providing for national defence. The fundamental written document that states how government shall operate and define its limitations is the Constitution.

Caribbean constitutions came into force on the country’s attainment of independence. In fact the document known as the Barbados constitution is The Barbados Independence Order Act 1966. This document is therefore a law of the parliament of Britain.

DEFINITION:A (document) which contains a body of legal rules which sets out the framework of government, states how it ought to operate and make declarations about the ideology and purpose of the state and society. The constitution also outlines the rights and duties of citizens.

Sandiford (2000:60) defines the constitution as:

“The essential pre-eminent, organic law that sets the nature, principles, purposes and arrangements for creating and operating the system of government in a country. It establishes the sources of sovereignty in the state, sets out the character, principles and basic rules for regulating branches of government, the organisation of government, and the relationships between the state and the individual, the restraints upon the use of public power, the rights and responsibilities of individuals, and the broad social and economic framework of government. It is supplemented by other laws, rules, orders and regulations made by the legislature or other organs of government, which however are limited by the constitution itself, and are subsidiary to it.”

FUNCTIONS:

1) The provision of fundamental law.

2) Creation of state institutions and the distribution of the functions of the state

3) Creation of the power to make laws (section 48(1))

4) Protection of fundamental rights and freedoms (see sections 11-23)


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5) A declaration of the ideology of the state

6) Definition of state territory

7) Furnishings of legitimacy to the state through the existence of an independent body of law, which regulates the state.

The three (3) main features of the constitution are:

1) The supremacy of the constitution

2) Emphasis on freedom

3) Monarchical System

Independence dates of some Islands: Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago 1962; Guyana and Barbados 1966; The Bahamas 1973; Grenada 1974; Dominica 1978; St Lucia and St. Vincent 1979; Belize and Antigua & Barbuda 1981; and St Kitts, Nevis & Anguilla 1983.

English speaking Caribbean constitutions are basically similar in structure and content. The exception is Guyana where there is an Executive Presidency. Trinidad & Tobago and Dominica have both established a Republican system.

The constitutions have to a large extent codified the unwritten conventions of the British constitution. The effect of this is that while parliament is Sovereign in Britain it is the constitution that is supreme in the Caribbean. This has implications for the law making process in both situations.

a) There were certain common factors that affected the creation of constitutions for the Caribbean:

b) They were produced by representatives of the British government and local political leaders at the colonial office (Whitehall). Hence Barrow’s statement that he will not be found “loitering on colonial premises after closing time.”

c) Local people were generally not consulted by their leaders on the contents of the constitution. (The possible exception being Eric Williams of T& T).Colonial authorities (Britain) insisted on certain provisions being in the Constitution.

In all the territories the constitution is the supreme law of the land. This is due to the fact that the constitution is written. The British constitution is unwritten and is made up of


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conventions, traditions, and practices pieces of legislation. Sir Edward Coke, writing about the British constitution said:

“The power and jurisdiction of parliament is so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds…. What parliament doth no authority upon earth an undo.”?

Lord Wright in the Liversidge Case wrote:

“In the constitution of this country, there are no guarantees to absolute rights. The safeguard of British liberty is in the good sense of the people and in the system of representatives and responsible government which has evolved.”

Thomas Paine (The Right of Men 1795) wrote:

“Government without a constitution is power without right.”

Chief Justice Marshall in the American case of Marbury v Madison (1803) said:

“Certainly all those who have framed written constitutions contemplate them as forming the fundamental and paramount law of the nation. Consequently the theory of every such government, must be, that an Act of the legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void.”

The constitution is therefore the: Highest law and the fundamental law of the land. Section 1 of the Barbados constitution provides:

“This constitution is the supreme law of Barbados and subject to the Provisions of this constitution, if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution, this constitution shall prevail and the other law shall, toThe extent of the inconsistency is void.”

The Courts have the power to determine that laws passed by parliament are void. THIS IS ONE OF THE CHECKS IN THE SYSTEM. This process is called Judicial Review. An individual with locus Standi must approach the court on an issue related to the Act. The court could then pronounce on the constitutionality of the Act in question.

However note Section 26 of the Barbados constitution. (There are similar provisions in the other Caribbean constitutions). THIS SECTION SAVES EXISTING LAWS FROM


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BEING DECLARED UNCONSTITUTIONAL EVEN THOUGH THEY ARE IN CONFLICT WITH THE CONSTITUTION.

According to Margaret Demerieux:

“This clause is a shield granted to the state to protect itself against a claim that a law or action taken under it infringes a right and is unconstitutional…In addition to shielding; the clause in effect set the limits of rights by making the whole body of pre-existing law a limitation on their enjoyment and legal recognition.”

Political structure as established by the constitutions in the English Speaking Caribbean

Monarchical System: Ceremonial, hereditary monarch as head of state, the Queen.

Republican System: Head of State, usually a President; breakage of ties with the English Monarchy. One form, where the President is a ceremonial head; other as in Guyana, Executive President: Head of State and Head of Government, an elected President.

Most of the islands have a unitary system of Government exceptions: Trinidad &Tobago; St Kitts & Nevis; Antigua & Barbuda;

Other features of the system include: Westminster/Whitehall Model/Liberal democracy. (See Worksheet 3)

Please note two doctrines of the constitution:

1) The Presumption of Constitutionality

2) State Action

General provisions of the constitution

a) Chapter 1: Supreme law clause

b) Chapter 2: Citizenship

c) Chapter 3: Protection of rights and freedoms.

d) Chapter 4: Office of Governor-General

e) Chapter 5: Establishment of Parliament/Legislature


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f) Chapter 6: Establishment of Cabinet (Political Executive)

g) Chapter 7: Establishment of the Judiciary

h) Chapter 8: The Public Service

i) Chapter 9: Finance

The Branches/Structure of Government

The three (3) branches of government are:

a) The Legislature (House of Assembly and Senate)

b) The Executive (The Prime Minister and Cabinet)

c) The Judiciary (The Court System).

In Britain and Barbados the Branches of government are fused (This is a feature of the Westminster model of government).

John Locke 1690 writing on the justification for separation of powers said:

“The three organs of state must not get into one hands...It may be too great a temptation to human frailty, apt to grasp at power, for the same persons who have the power of making laws, to have also in their hands the power to execute them, whereby they may exempt themselves from obedience to the laws they make, and suit the law, both in its making and execution, to their own private advantage.”

United States: Separation of Powers based on Checks and Balances.

The above are to be described and discuss thoroughly.

NB: See worksheet #5 for the process of amending the constitution.

Tutorial Questions

1. Can independence once granted be revoked?

2. Should our constitutions be passed by our local Parliaments?


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3. To what extent, if at all, is the constitution of Barbados a “carbon copy” of the British constitution?

4. What changes should be made to the constitution and why?

5. Examine fusion of powers and separation of powers with respect to the structure of government in Britain, Barbados and the United States of America.

6. Are they any advantages/disadvantages to having a written/unwritten constitution?

7. Should the Barbados constitution be amended to include a referendum provision?


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WORKSHEET 3 - THE BILL OF RIGHTS QUESTION: Are human beings born with rights? When do we acquire such rights? Should there be inalienable rights?

Each English speaking Caribbean country has a written constitution that contains a Bill of rights provision. One of the important functions of a written constitution is to define the basic rights and freedoms of citizens and to restrict the power of the government and other citizens to violate these rights and freedoms. The chapter guarantees a number of human rights and civil rights to all citizens which are patterned on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the European Convention of Human Rights. This chapter (111, sections 11-26) is entrenched and can only be altered by a two-thirds vote in Parliament.

Provisions:

(!2) Protection of right to life... (13) Protection of right to personal liberty (14) Protection from slavery and forced labour (15) Protection from inhuman treatment (16) Protection from deprivation of property... (17) Protection from arbitrary search or entry.. (18) Provisions to secure the protection of the law (19) Protection of freedom of conscience (20) Protection of freedom of expression (21) Protection of freedom of assembly and association (22) Protection of freedom of movement (23) Protection from discrimination on grounds of race, place of origin, political opinions, colour or creed..

Take note: There is no mention of the right to vote. In addition, no mention is made of the following “rights”- the Right to an Education, the Right to Health Care, the Right to Shelter, the Right to Food, the Right to a clean Environment. Should/can such rights be included in a constitution?

Section 24 states that, “...if any person alleges that any of the provisions of sections 11-23


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has been, is being or is likely to be contravened in relation to him...,” then that person may apply to the High Court for redress.

Attention must be drawn to section 26 of the constitution. This section provides for existing laws(-prior to 1966) to be valid despite contravening any of the above sections.

This has serious implications for the enjoyment of the said rights.

Should section 26 be removed from the constitution or be altered in some manner?

It must be noted that actions for breach of one’s constitutional rights can only be brought against the state or quasi/para-statal institutions. This is known as the State Action doctrine. This acts as a limitation on the efficacy of the above provisions in protecting the individual.

Rights and freedoms are not absolute. The constitution imposes limitations or restrictions on the above rights in the interest of the following:

(A) Public defense (B) Public Order (C) Public Morality (D) Public Safety (E) Public Health (F) Protecting the rights and freedoms of others.

Dr Francis Alexis wrote in “Changing Caribbean Constitutions”:

“It would be simplistic or even naive, to equate every dimunition of any right of an individual with ambitions to tyranny on the part of the state. The loss of a particular right in an individual may at time be justified or even required In the interests of the moral, psychological, social or economic welfare of the Society as a whole. At other times, however, intrusions by the state on the rights of the individual may safely be analysed as indicia of an incipient totalitarianism.”

Emergency powers

The Governor General has authority to issue a proclamation declaring a period of public emergency. Such a period will normally be in force for one month but can be extended for six months at a time if a majority of the House of Assembly so determines. For an emergency proclamation to be valid it must state that the GG is satisfied that a state of emergency has arisen because a state of war is close at hand or there has been an outbreak of


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infectious disease, or that some person has taken action to endanger public safety or deprive the community or a substantial portion of it of essential services.

According to the Emergency Powers Act, during a period of emergency, Cabinet may make any orders which it considers in the public interest, including orders for the entering and searching of premises and the detention of persons. According to section 13 (5) of the constitution no law passed during a period of emergency which contains reasonable measures for dealing with the situation is to be held inconsistent with or in contravention of the provisions in the constitution for the protection of personal liberty.

In any case a detainee must be given a statement in writing containing the grounds for detention within five days and may request a review of the case. This review must take place within one month after the request is made and the detainee must be afforded opportunity to instruct an attorney at law. The review must be by an independent and impartial tribunal presided over by a person from the legal profession appointed by the Chief Justice. The executive is not bound to accept the recommendation of the tribunal.

Tutorial Questions for consideration

1. What is a right? 2. Distinguish human rights from civil rights? 3. Are individual rights necessary? Why? 4. Can limitations on rights be justified? 5. Whose interest should take precedence- the right of the individual or the right of the

state? 6. Is it justifiable to discriminate against persons based on their age, culture, sexual

orientation or disability? 7. Can any of the above rights be used to justify prostitution or the “right” to use

marijuana? 8. Can the exercise of police powers conflict with the rights of individuals?


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WORKSHEET 4 - The Constitutional Offices

Prime Minister/Opposition Leader/Head of State.

Every state has a political system, within that political system is a governmental structure referred to as the Branches of government. The government must however have a leader. That leader may be the President as in the United States or a Prime Minister as in the case of Barbados. In some systems the Head of the government and the Head of State are combined into one person as in the US; in countries like Barbados, the head of government and the Head of State are separate (similar to Britain). Note also that in democratic countries there must always be alternative leadership. Whatever the situation students should be aware of the role of these persons.

The Prime Minister

Section 65 (1) of the Barbados constitution states, “Whenever the GG has occasion to appoint a Prime Minister he shall, acting in his own discretion, appoint the member of the House of Assembly who, in his judgment, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House.”

There are a number of occasions when a Governor General (or a President in the case of T&T, Dominica and Guyana*) would have to appoint a PM:

1. On the death of a PM 2. The resignation of a PM 3. After a General Election 4. Revocation of the PM’s appointment (after a successful no-confidence motion).

Powers

Some of the powers of a prime minister are constitutional i.e. derived from the constitution. Others are extra-constitutional i.e. not actually written in the constitution, but are of the privileges and usages once associated with the king in Parliament.

The Prime Minister is said to be Primus inter pares (first among equals). Much of the power of a prime minister is centered on the concept of patronage: the power or authority to appoint persons to powerful, prestigious and well salaried positions. Powers include:

• Appoints ministers to his Cabinet and is chairman. He thus presides over all matters


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pertaining to the cabinet (Section 65 (2)). • Can dismiss and reshuffle his cabinet at his pleasure or discretion. • Advises the Queen on the appointment of the Governor General • Appoints all judges (section 81) • Appoints twelve (12) Senators and can dismiss them at pleasure • Appoints the President of the Senate • Is chief spokesman of the government and enunciates major policy decisions. • can influence government policy in all government departments. • Has the authority to prorogue parliament • He can dissolve parliament and call a general election at his discretion. • Appoints three (3) members of the Electoral & Boundaries Commission. • Can be Minister of Finance (or he can choose any other ministry). • Chairman of the Defense Board (BDF) • Usually the political leader of the party in power • His support is necessary for the appointment of persons: Ambassadors, members of

service commissions, chairpersons of boards... • As minister of finance he is responsible for expenditure, the raising of taxes, the

granting of concessions to business, the governor of the central bank.. • He has some say in the selection of candidates. The late Tom Adams (former Prime Minister) said:

“We have a constitution which is unduly generous to Prime Ministers. In effect in Barbados, any prime minister can play the part of Samson and drag the ‘temple’ down with him, since even if he loses a vote of no confidence, the PM is not obliged to resign and be replaced by another member who can command a majority. He may, if he chooses, dissolve the House of Assembly and therefore place the seat of every Member of Parliament at risk. This is a very powerful power to give a PM, and left to myself, it is not a power which I think is always in the best interest of Parliament in small countries.”

Sir Lloyd Erskine Sandiford stated:

“When I hear of the office of PM as being primus inter pares, first among equals, there is no way in this country that the PM is any primus inter pares,...That must have been so when the office first emerged, but today the PM is far ahead of other members of cabinet...that old Latin phrase ...is no longer applicable today. He is more than no. 1, he is it; so much so that what we have in this country, I


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am positive about it is not cabinet government. We have prime ministerial government in this country, and we had better understand it, and what we are trying to do is to ensure that prime ministerial government in this country does not run riot that it has to be controlled by different centres of government.”

Question:

What “centres of government” can effectively control a prime minister in Barbados?

Limitations on Prime Ministerial power

• He/she has no authority to dismiss appointed civil servants (but can dismiss certain public officers).

• His/her hold on the office is dependent on the confidence and support of his party colleagues in parliament.

• He/she has no judicial authority • He/she has to comply with the rule of law. • He/she has to consult with the leader of the opposition when making certain

appointments.

Removal

• Defeat of his/her party at a General Election • If he loses his/her seat in an election • After a successful no- confidence motion (section 66(2)). “If the House of Assembly by a resolution which has received the affirmative vote of a majority of all the members thereof resolves that the appointment of the Prime Minister ought to be revoked and the Prime Minister does not within three days of the passing of the resolution either resign or advise the GG to dissolve parliament, the GG shall, by instrument under the Public Seal, revoke the appointment of the Prime Minister.”

There has never been a successful No-confidence motion in the English Speaking Caribbean. The No-confidence motion brought against Mr. Sandiford in 1994 (by Mr. Owen Arthur, leader of the opposition BLP) was not successful from the perspective of section 66(2). Of the 28 members of the House of Assembly, 14 members voted for the resolution and 12 voted against it; one (1) member was absent. Never the less the PM dissolved parliament and called an election (September 6, 1994, the BLP won).

Note that in Belize, St Vincent and St. Lucia, the GG can refuse to dissolve parliament at the request of a PM who has lost a No-Confidence Motion.


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The Opposition Leader

Role of the Opposition

• To offer constructive criticism and give critical support to government’s policy. • To present itself as an alternative government • To offer alternative proposals to government’s policies so as to sway support away

from the government towards the opposition. • To ensure that the government conforms to the rule of law and to the principles of

democracy and good governance. • To represent whichever interest the party serves.

Appointment

Section 74 (1) and (2) provides that there shall be a leader of the opposition appointed by the GG, and that the GG appoints the person who in the opinion of the GG is best able to command the support of the majority of persons in the Hose of Assembly that do not support the government.

N.B: According to the constitution there is only one official opposition/leader- known as Her Majesty’s Loyal Opposition. (NB: In 1989 the NDP replaced the BLP as the official opposition).

An Opposition Leader is appointed where:

• The previous one resigns or dies • After a General Election • Revocation of appointment (section 74 (4))

Powers of the Opposition Leader:

• Appoints two (2) Senators and can dismiss them at pleasure. • Is the chief spokesman of the opposition in/out of parliament • Is chairman of the Public Accounts Committee • Appoints two members of the EBC. • Must be consulted by the PM at times • Can make budgetary replies • Appoints a “shadow” cabinet


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The Head of State

There is a convention in Britain which states: “We assume that the Queen of England can do no wrong.”

After independence Barbados retained the Queen of England as its Head of state (Monarchical system) or its sovereign. Section 63 (1) states that, “the executive authority of Barbados is vested in Her Majesty.” The constitution further states that the GG may exercise this authority on behalf of Her Majesty either directly or indirectly

( Section 63(2)).

Section 28 provides:

“There shall be a Governor General of Barbados who shall be appointed by Her Majesty and who shall hold office during Her Majesty’s pleasure and who shall be her Majesty’s representative in Barbados.”

In political reality the GG is selected by the PM and it is the PM who possesses real “power” and authority.

Powers of the Governor General

According to section 32 (1) of the constitution, “The Governor General shall act in accordance with the advice of the cabinet or a minister (usually the PM)...” Some of the occasions are:

• The appointment and removal of ministers • The appointment of the 12 government Senators • dissolving parliament • Appointment and removal of this country’s ambassadors • appointment and transfer of Permanent Secretaries

At times the GG acts on the advice of the PM after the latter has consulted with the Leader of the Opposition:

• The appointment of all judges (including the Chief Justice). • The appointment of Service Commissions • The appointment of three (3) members of the EBC (including the chairman). • The appointment and removal of the Ombudsman


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The GG acts on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition:

• The appointment of two (2) members of the Senate. • The appointment of two (2) members of the EBC (including the deputy chairman);

after the OL has consulted with the PM. He/she acts on his/her own in the following areas:

• The appointment of the PM and LO. • Revoking the PM’s appointment (after a successful No confidence motion_ • Revoking the appointment of the LO. • The appointment of seven (7) Senators (must be from certain interests) • Dissolving parliament if the office of PM is vacant..... • Selecting his/her personal staff from list supplied by the PSC. The GG acts on the advice of Service Commissions e.g. the PSC when it comes to the appointment and disciplining of civil servants. Whether the GG has acted on such advice is not justifiable i.e. cannot be inquired into by any court.

Tutorial Questions

1. It is often argued that a Prime Minister possesses too much power. To what extent, if at all, is this a sound argument?

2. What changes, if any, would you make to the powers of the PM? Why?

3. Does the GG serve a useful purpose?

4. Argue for and against the retention of the Queen as Head of State.

5. Should Barbados become a republic? POSTSCRIPT

Trinidad & Tobago and Dominica have a republican system of government with a Ceremonial President as Head of State. Guyana has a republican system with an Executive President who is both Head of State and Head of Government (Somewhat like the USA).

Roger Worrell Jan, 2007

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WORKSHEET 5 - AMENDING/CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION

Reminder: A constitution may be defined as a basic, fundamental, supreme and authoritative (document) or law which sets out the form and structure of the government of a state, as well as the principles, powers, functions, rules, procedures, rights and restraints that should regulate the actions of the main organs of the state, both in relation to themselves, and in relation to the individual citizens of the state (Sandiford, 2000).

A constitution may be rigid (difficult to amend) or flexible (easy to amend). Generally written constitutions are said to be rigid whereas unwritten constitutions are considered flexible. The Barbados constitution can be altered by an act passed by parliament- a law passed by both houses: The Senate and the House of Assembly. Section 48 (1) gives parliament a general power to make laws: “Parliament may make laws for the peace, order and good government of the country.” Section 49 (1) speaks specifically about the alteration issue- “Parliament may, by an Act of Parliament passed by both houses alter this constitution.” Some sections may be altered by a simple majority, while the major sections would require a two-thirds majority of both houses. These include: 1) Chapter 1/section 1 2) Chapter 11 3) Chapter 111 4) Sections dealing with the office of GG 5) Establishment and powers of parliament, electoral law, dissolution of parliament, appointment of senators, the executive, office of DPP Barbados, Belize and Trinidad and Tobago can change their constitutions without a referendum. In the other territories, the governments must first consult their citizens before a constitutional amendment can be made.

Constitutional amendments in Barbados:

1) 1974- granted the PM authority to appoint all judges and make temporary appointments to the civil service. 2) 1981- established an Electoral and Boundaries Commission. 3) 1990- established a Court of Appeal 4) 1995- Place all civil servants in the same position of judges, the GG and DPP: their salaries “shall not be altered to his disadvantage after his appointment.”


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5) 2000- removed the “discrimination” against local women with respect to the marriage of non-Barbadians; to enable children of Barbadian women born overseas to acquire citizenship.

Tutorial question: What changes would you make to the constitution and why?

Sir Henry Forde Constitutional Commission Report

This commission was set up by the government of Barbados in 1996 “to examine, consider and inquire into the constitution of Barbados ....” It’s major recommendations were:

1. That the language of the constitution be simplified to make it more easily understood.

2. Barbados should become a republic: a local (Barbadian) Head of State- ceremonial President.

3. The right to vote should be specifically mentioned in the bill of rights section. 4. Remove the authority to appoint judges from the PM acting on his own discretion. 5. Alter the composition of the Senate- recognise the possibility of a third party. 6. Peoples initiatives. 7. Equality of sexes in marriage 8. Maintain dual and multiple citizenship 9. Children born of Barbadian males and females be equally treated in relation to

citizenship. 10. Amend section 66 (2) to prevent a PM from calling an election after losing a no-

confidence motion. ( make our constitution similar to those in Belize, St Vincent and St. Lucia where the GG can refuse the PM’s request to call an election.)

11. The First Past the Post System should be retained.

* It has been recommended that Barbados should change from the present Monarchical system to a Republican system. Do you agree?

Tutorial questions

1) What is a referendum? Should the constitution be amended to include such a provision? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a referendum?

2) 2) What is a recall election? Should our constitution include such a provision? Why/why not?

Roger Worrell Jan, 2007.

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WORKSHEET 6 - WESTMINSTER MODEL OF GOVERNMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN?

Tutorial issue: Did Caribbean constitutions reproduce the Westminster model of

government? The Westminster model is the system of conventions and practices that make up what is called the British “Constitution”/system. The conventions and practices have attained the status of law and constitute the system of government practiced in Britain. The focal point of this system is parliament and the British parliament is located at Westminster, hence the name. The main concern here is whether the system of government followed in the English speaking Caribbean is so similar to that of Britain that it can reasonably be argued that we do in fact follow their system. Some have argued that substantial changes were made so that we do not follow the British system. What is not in doubt is that there are fundamental similarities between the two systems. This is not difficult to understand when we remember that Britain colonised the islands of the Caribbean and were in control of their political affairs (among other things) for over 300 years.

The main characteristics of the Westminster model are:

1) A liberal democratic ideology (See worksheet 1);

2) An unwritten constitution- parliament is supreme or sovereign (no body outside of parliament is required to agree or not agree before any law is made, except the monarch);

3) The Head of state is a ceremonial, hereditary monarch- Elizabeth 11; 4) The effective head of government is an elected Prime Minister who sits in

parliament (House of Commons) and exercise executive power; 5) Representative and responsible government; 6) Cabinet government- Prime Ministers and ministers determine policies for the

governance of the country and is collectively responsible to parliament. Ministers are individually responsible for their ministries;

7) Fusion of powers (branches); 8) Independence of the judiciary- judges should be free from political interference

and political pressure;


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9) Party government- political parties compete for power-at least two parties. Each party has a set of policies/programme found in its manifesto and seeks a mandate from the people in elections that are free and fair;

10) The rule of law: there is an absence of arbitrariness- actions and decisions must be within the boundaries of the law. Citizens can contest actions or decisions taken by those in authority- they have access to the court and are entitled to due process;

11) Elections are constitutionally due every five years; 12) The PM can dissolve parliament and call elections at his discretion; 13) The PM can porogue parliament; 14) A bicameral legislature; 15) The PM is not the minister of Finance; (Chancellor of the Exchequer). 16) The Lord Chancellor- a cabinet minister - the head of the judiciary – Speaker in the

House of Lords (Fusion?); (See changes made by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005)*

17) Use of party whips and the committee system; 18) Life peerage in the Upper House.

Are these characteristics found in the countries of the English speaking Caribbean? One writer (Madden) wrote, “...the only true Westminster model remained inevitably at home in Westminster; it was not intended for export, but was strictly to be consumed only on the premises.” If the Westminster model was not exported to the Caribbean territories, then what was? The model of government that was adopted and drafted into written constitutions on the attainment of independence was created at Whitehall- the location of the Colonial Office- by British civil servants in association with colonial leaders. Some have therefore given our system of government the nomenclature of “Whitehall”. This model varies from the Westminster model in a number of ways:

1) Caribbean constitutions are written and are supreme. 2) Relatively inflexible constitutions- particular majorities are needed to change some

sections. 3) Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights 4) The Head of state is represented by a GG. 5) PM can be ministers of finance 6) The head of the judiciary is the chief justice (not a minister of the government) 7) Whip and committee system are relatively weak


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8) Some countries have a republican system, unicameral legislatures, proportional representation electoral system

NB: Characteristics 1-14 (excluding # 2) of the Westminster model above are also features of the Whitehall model.

Questions to ponder:

1) Can it be reasonably argued that Caribbean constitutions are carbon copies of the British unwritten constitution?

2) Should Caribbean leaders seek to create a constitutional structure that is our own or should we continue to follow tradition?

3) Are we destined to be followers of others?


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WORKSHEET 7 - THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM IN THE CARIBBEAN

The English speaking Caribbean has in place a representative democratic system. Therefore, general elections are the bedrock of the origins of the governments in the region. As part of this system every qualified individual is entitled to the right to vote for the candidate of his/her choice. This right is not mentioned as part of the fundamental rights provision of the constitution. The right to vote is given indirect recognition by the constitution. For instance, the Barbados constitution state that any law providing for elections must include provisions “designed to ensure that as far as practicable any person qualified to vote...has a reasonable opportunity of voting.”(Sec. 422b). All persons 18 years and over are entitled to be registered as an elector.

REASONS FOR ELECTIONS 1) Elections provide for a peaceful change of government 2) Elections give citizens an opportunity to participate in the political process 3) Elections are part of the democratic process 4) Elections allow a government to be formed which is supported by a “majority” of

the people. 5) Elections provide legitimacy to the government.

There are two electoral systems used in the English speaking Caribbean.

1) First Past the Post System

2) Proportional Representation (used only in Guyana)

There are two major responsibilities that has to be undertaken in respect of the electoral system:

[a] setting the number, size and boundaries of constituencies(where applicable)

[b] Registering voters and supervising elections

In Barbados the authority that administers elections is the Electoral and Boundaries Commission. This commission comprises 5 persons - three (including the chairman) are appointed by the PM and 2 (including the deputy) are appointed by the Opposition leader. It was introduced by way of a constitutional amendment in 1981. The constitution states that “the registration of voters and the conduct of elections in every constituency or any matter that appear to the commission to be incidental to or consequential upon either, shall be subject to the direction and supervision of the commission.” (Sec. 41c:1)


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FIRST PAST THE POST SYSTEM

This is based upon the principle that the candidate that gets the “majority” of the votes in a constituency wins the seat and the party that wins the majority of seats win the election and is entitled to form the government. In this system voters mark only their first choice on the ballot paper and the person with the most votes wins. For example, if in a constituency, 11,270 voters vote like this:

Candidate A 3520 Candidate B 4045 Candidate C 3705

Based upon the First Past the Post System, candidate B would be elected. However, 7225 voters preferred someone else: the election of candidate B only reflects the preferences of 4045 voters out of 11,270, or 36%. All other votes are said to be wasted. With this system the country is divided into a number of political units called constituencies.(30 in Barbados). Boundaries are demarcated based on, among other things, population density. An attempt is made to have approximate equality of constituency size.

Since May 2003, St Philip and St James have three (3) constituencies. In other words two (2) new constituencies were created by the Electoral and Boundaries Commission. Other boundary changes were made to accommodate the change in registered voters in the old constituencies. The general size of all or most constituencies would have change since may 2003.

Presently the constitutional provision allows for a constituency to have 7600 voters, but can have a band of 15% higher or lower. That gives each constituency a high of 8740 voters or a low of 6460. At 31 January, 2006 the certified list contained 228,013 electors for the 30 constituencies.

Each political party can be represented in each constituency by a candidate of its choice. (Independents can also run). All candidates must pass through a selection process: from party branch to party executive. Constituencies are divided into Polling Districts. There are a number of polling Stations in each district. Completed ballots are taken to counting stations to be tallied where a winner is declared. In Barbados voting usually takes place between the hours of 6 am and 6 pm.

Students are expected to familiarise themselves with:

A. The types/forms of campaigning

B. The laws/regulations pertaining to the conduct of campaigns and Voting.


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Advantages and disadvantages of FPPS.

The Wooding Commission Report of 1974(T&T) stated: that the, “....disadvantages of the first past the post system outweigh its advantages.”

Peter A. Jamadar in, The Mechanics of Democracy: Proportional Representation vs. First Past the Post, said:

“The most serious and fundamental defect in the first past the post system is that it regularly and repeatedly fails to create a parliament in which the image of the feelings of the nation are truly reflected. There is the general tendency to exaggerate the representativeness of the largest party and to reduce that of the smaller one.”

ADVANTAGES:

1) Simple to understand

2) Usually leads to an outright majority winner-politically stable

3) Elected members can be easily replaced

4) Direct relationship between candidates and constituents

DISADVANTAGES

1) Tends to favour the major parties

2) Gerrymandering is possible

3) Disproportionate results

4) Exclusion, Distortion and Exaggeration of results.

Please note that the Sir Henry Forde Constitutional Commission has recommended that Barbados retain the First Past the Post System.

PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

Under P.R. seats are allocated to a party after an election in direct proportion to the number of votes that party received. The basic principle underlying PR elections are that all voters deserve representation and that all political groups in society deserve to be represented in parliament in proportion to their strength in the electorate. All PR systems have certain basic characteristics:


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(1) multi-member districts

(2) seats are divided up in these districts according to proportion of votes received. E.g. if the candidates of a party win 40 % of the vote in a 10 member district, they receive 4 of the 10 seats, or 40% of the seats.

Guyana is the only country in the English speaking Caribbean that uses PR. One type of PR is the List System. In this system, each party puts up a list or slate of candidates equal in number of seats to be filled. Voters cast their ballots for one party lists or another, and the parties receive seats in proportion to their share of the vote. There are two types:

(1) Closed List System: order of candidates are fixed on the list and voters vote for the entire list

(2) Open List System: voters can indicate their preference among the list of candidates.

Guyana adopted the closed list system. In Guyana the President is elected simultaneously with parliament. Each list of candidates is required to have a designated candidate for the presidency. This person’s name is placed at the top of the list. The candidate on the list which receives the largest number of votes becomes President*

According to Cynthia Barrow-Giles (UWI Lecturer):

“Unfortunately proportional representation as an electoral system has been subjected to much subversion in Guyana and has militated against the benefits of such an electoral system.”

Disadvantages and Advantages of Proportional Representation

Advantages of PR

1) Proportionality- leads to a fairer representation: Some argue it is more democratic.

2) Smaller parties have a better chance at winning seats and hence will survive

3) Gerrymandering is not possible

4) Drawing election districts is easier than drawing constituencies

Disadvantages of PR

1) Can lead to political instability- no outright majority-Coalition governments.

2) Breaks the link between voters and representatives.


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3) Can be complicated and difficult for voters to understand

Tutorial Questions

1) Identify other advantages and disadvantages of both systems.

2) Can either FPP or PR claim to be the more democratic?

3) Explain the origin and meaning of the term “Gerrymandering”?

4) Which of the two electoral systems can lead to an elected government that is reflected of the wishes of the majority? Use statistical evidence to validate your conclusions.

5) What were the significant outcomes of the recent general election in St Lucia?


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WORKSHEET 8 - PART II: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLITICAL SYS.

Colonialism/Imperialism and Neo-colonialism Issues: What was Colonialism?

What were the reasons for colonialism? What philosophy underpinned it? What were (are?) its mechanisms of control? How did it impact on the Caribbean? How, if at all, did it all end?

Ralph Gonsalves defined colonialism as:

“The conquest and settlement of a weak and backward country for the purpose of exploitation by a stronger or advanced alien state” (The Spectre of Imperialism: The Case of the Caribbean.)

Kwame Nkrumah defined it as:

“The policy by which the “mother country” the colonial power, binds her colonies to herself by political ties with the primary object of promoting her own economic interest.” (Towards Colonial Freedom)

Frantz Fanon:

“Colonialism is not a thinking machine nor a body endowed with reasoning faculties. It is violence in its natural state and will only yield when confronted with greater violence.” (The Wretched of the Earth)

William Demas:

“Colonialism was not merely the denial of opportunities for a people to govern themselves. It was above all a process of psychological and mental subordination.”(The Prospects for Decolonisation in the West Indies)

Another writer described it as:

“... a structure comprising laws, regulations, and rules....founded on the cultural suppression or deculturing of Africans and the implantation of the English way of life in their consciousness.”

According to C. Barrow-Giles, the study of colonialism is important largely because it was the prime determinant of societal relations in the British West Indies.

The activities described above are sometimes described as imperialism. In other words


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imperialism can sometimes be substituted for colonialism. In fact it was the imperialistic tendencies of European countries that have led to the possession of colonies (colonialism) Imperialism is generally used to refer to the economic forces that have forged colonialism.

IMPERIALISM

Issue: Can imperialism be distinguished from colonialism?

Defined as:

a) A stage of capitalism leading to political, economic and military rivalry between advanced capitalist states.

b) A relationship of dependency (without necessarily physically controlling another country)

c) Economic exploitation of weaker states.

d) Neo-colonialism and recolonisation- control or sovereignty over formerly independent states.

The term is associated with V.I. Lenin- Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism. It involves five (5) principles. What are these principles?

With respect to imperialism the emphasis is on economic dominance over a territory or a region. Imperialism can therefore exist without colonialism strictly so called. However, colonialism, ipso facto, involves imperialism.

Reasons for Colonialism/Imperialism:

• The search for wealth and glory

• To spread “Christianity” as a “civilising” goal.

• World domination: to build empires so as to increase the coloniser’s wealth.

• To spread capitalism- cheap raw materials, markets for the export of goods and capital as means of wealth creation.


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The philosophy of colonialism/imperialism:

• The inherent inferiority of the non-white population in the world.

• The necessity of colonialism to develop these inferior people.

• That colonialism was accepted by colonial people, no outsider should therefore object.

The Mechanics of control under colonialism and the consequences/impact of colonialism,(past and present) will be examined.

Tutorial issues

1) Identify ways that the Caribbean is economically dependent on foreign countries?

2) What is meant by “industrialisation by invitation” and did it lead to economic development in the region?

NEO-COLONIALISM ( A new form of colonialism)

According to Cythia Barrow-Giles (2002:4),

“Neo-colonial theory refers to a body of thought which views the political independence of former colonies as a facade, behind which lurks the former mother countries, other imperialist nations and powerful western financiers and economic interests.”

In other words formal independence did not bring about an end to economic colonialism.

Nkrumah stated,

“The essence of neo-colonialism is that the state which is subject to it is, in....theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside.”

He argued that neo-colonialism is manifested in the various spheres :

1) Political

2) Economic

3) Ideological

4) Military


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5) Cultural (Cultural imperialism).

And is associated with the following:

• Invasion of territory

• Economic and military control

• High interest rates

• Control of the world market by international capital

• Control of prices of commodities

• Multilateral aid

• Control of shipping

• Military occupation

• Control of news and print media

• Religious and cultural penetration

• Control of terms of trade. Later issues related to recolonisation and the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, GATT and the World Trade Organisation will be examined in part III of the course.

Tutorial Questions

1) Did independence marked the end of colonialism?

2) What do you understand by the term “geopolitics”?

3) Is the relationship between the USA and the Caribbean marked by mutual respect?

4) Is the English speaking Caribbean strategically important to the US?

5) What do you understand by the term “cultural imperialism”? How, if at all, is it manifested in the English speaking Caribbean (Barbados)?


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WORKSHEET 9 - 1930's : Struggles of the Working Class People (Disturbances, Riots or Revolts.)

Issues to be addressed:

• What occurred in the English Speaking Caribbean during the 1930's?

• What were the causes and consequences (short and long term) of these events?

• Were the consequences politically, socially and economically catalytic?

• Who benefitted the most from the changes- the working, middle or upper classes?

The labour disturbances/ riots of the 1930's resulted from the dismal social, economic and political conditions which the masses of black West Indians faced.

According to C. Barrow-Giles,

“The events of the period were...the reaction and the response of the socially, politically and economically- dominated working class and the peasantry to their position in society. This reaction took the form of riots, strikes and demonstrations and represented an attack on the existing power relationships.”

A political activist in Barbados, Wynter Crawford, said in 1937, “It is high time, that this infamous tyranny, this system of fascism, better known as colonial imperialism, should be completely destroyed. There is no name too evil to be applied to a system which keeps thousands of workers in semi-starvation, denies them all human rights, and crushes with brutal military force any effort on their part to lift their standard of living.”

It is questionable whether the events of the 1930's can be considered “revolutionary.” A revolt is an uprising against the authority of the state. The basic aim is the overthrow of that state’s authority and brings about a change in the order of things. For a revolt to occur, the exploited and oppressed masses must realise the impossibility of living under the old way.

The general conditions (social, economic and political) of the masses: The Causes.

• Labour conditions: high unemployment, underemployment, extremely poor wages, excessively long working hours. For instance the Deane Commission in Barbados found that wages were below subsistence level, esp. among agriculture workers- did not exceed 18 cents a day.

• Extremely bad social conditions: poor housing, overcrowded and dilapidated housing which gave rise to slums; lack of proper water facilities, poor sanitation, the prevalence of diseases, absence of adequate health care facilities, poor educational facilities and opportunities. Susan


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Craig and G.K. Lewis stated that conditions were a condemnation of the colonial government, as one hundred years after emancipation (1834), “every testimony about living conditions bore witness to a serious crisis.” Another writer commented on the situation, saying that, “...the vilest thing in housing accommodation that man can ever have seen...The sanitary arrangements were primitive in the extreme.

• Racism and inequality: these were reflected in every aspect of life in the colonies- land ownership (or lack thereof), employment opportunities, education and other social benefits, wealth and political influence were all based on race and class.

• Overpopulation: Compounded by lack of emigration opportunities esp. due to the Great Depression and the return of migrants from Panama etc. This exacerbated the already desperate situation.

The Italian invasion of Ethiopia:

• The Great Depression: as a result colonial economies collapse, less sugar sold, less revenue, increase unemployment and reduce wages, less emigration, increase cost of living, less remittances from Britain and the US= reduction in the people standard of living, malnutrition and starvation.

• The political system: The Old Representative System (in Barbados) and Crown Colony Government did not/ could not represent the interests of the black majority working class. These systems were dominated by the plantocracy/propertied classes. The disenfranchised masses had no political representation and hence had no alternative to voice their grievances.

• Lack of organised trade unions: due to the hostility of the political system trade unions were largely illegal and there were no collective bargaining procedures. This meant that the workers were not organised and represented and hence were exploited by the system. This exploitation was seen through- unfair dismissals, poor wages, long hours, poor working conditions....

• The role of Garveyism: Marcus Garvey emphasised black consciousness, racial pride and economic democracy based on Black Nationalism. He stressed that black people should acquire political power since the lack of it had resulted in social, economic, and cultural deprivation. Two of Garvey’s slogans were: “Africa for Africans, home and abroad.” “Arise ye mighty race.”

• Local nationalist agitators: Clement Payne, Uriah Butler, Alexander Bustamante

Violence first started in St. Kitts in 1934 and 1935 and spread throughout the region. In 1937 riots broke out in Oilfields of Trinidad and Tobago. Riots also broke out in Jamaica and Barbados in 1937.


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THE MOYNE COMMISSION REPORT (1938)

The major response of the British government to the situation in the 1930's was to appoint a commission in August 1938 to:

“Investigate social and economic conditions in Barbados, British Guiana, British Honduras, Jamaica, the Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago and the Windward Islands.”

The report was generally criticised since little or nothing was said about the political situation. G.K. Lewis wrote:

“...the report ....was nothing more... than a futile proposal to make charitable social services do duty for economic, social and political reform...”

According to Kelvin Singh in his book, Race and Class, Struggles in a Colonial State: Trinidad 1917-1945, said:

“....the recommendations ....were greeted by political and labour leaders...with scepticism if not disdain.”

Major recommendations

• Establishment of a West Indian Welfare Fund- one million $ annually for 20 years, For improvement in the social sector: education, health, housing...

• Political: Universal adult suffrage, greater elected representation, support for a federation, power to remain in the hands of the Governor.

• Labour and Trade unions: laws to protect trade unions legalised peaceful picketing, creation of wage boards, workmen’s compensation schemes...

• Housing: Clearing of slums, land to be provided by estate owners, rural housing provided by the government.

• Public Health: medical advisor to the government, preventative medicine, training of nurses, a school of hygiene.

• Economic: Increase sugar quota, increased preferences, intensification of agriculture through mixed farming, industrial development-diversification.

• Education: Establishment of teacher training colleges, build more schools, free school meals and clothes for children, encourage adult ed., encourage girls to compete for scholarships, vocational ed. For girls.


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Assessment

According to Barrow-Giles, in the short term the political recommendations served to appease local demand without relinquishing colonial control or domination of the political system. She believed that the lower classes benefited from the change in the labour conditions even though the unions were controlled by the middle class. She also believed that the report “did not usher in any revolutionary changes.” Susan Craig believed that the recommended social reforms brought few tangible benefits to the workers in the short run as they continued to suffer from low wages and poor living conditions.

The Major Consequences of the Riots

• Loss of life and property.

• The enfranchisement of the masses-led to increase representation of the black majority especially after adult suffrage.

• Formation and increase in mass based democratic political parties, largely led by middle class educated black professionals. This led to attacks upon the ORS and CCG. The parties sought constitutional reform- the transfer of political power and authority to elected locals. This eventually led to representative and responsible government and eventually internal self government.

• Trade unionisation: numbers of unions were established to organise and represent the mass of West Indian workers in the sugar fields, the oilfields, docks etc. These unions fought to reduce the level of exploitation that existed and provided an opportunity for the workers to be represented as part of a collective bargaining procedure.

• The economic relationships in the West Indies remained largely unchanged. Economic democracy did not come about. The wealth remained in the hands of the local and international bourgeoisie. According to Susan Craig’s Smiles and Blood,

“The ruling class in the region was able to consolidate its position by appeasing on the one hand and on the other containing the workers.”

Conclusion

The decade of the 1930's can be regarded as a watershed in the history of the British West Indies. Not only did the events of the 1930's and their aftermath accelerate the pace of constitutional and socio-economic developments but they also signalled the attack on the entire structure of colonial administration and society. The 1930's therefore saw the emergence of the modern West Indies. (C. Barrow-Giles, Introduction to Caribbean Politics)


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Tutorial Questions

1) Is it correct to argue that no fundamental change came about as a result of the labour riots of the 1930's?

2) Can there be any justification for the riots?

3) What were the two most important consequences of the riots for the development of the region?

4) What was the impact of adult suffrage and political parties?


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WORKSHEET 10 - Political Parties and Trade Unions After the labour disturbances/ riots of the 1930's, the consequential progressive enfranchisement of the masses and the recommendations of the Moyne Commission Report of 1938, mass based political parties and trade unions became two of the dominant organisations in the various territories. These two organisations were necessary to organise and represent the workers in their fight to be recognised politically, socially and economically. The Moyne Commission report had highlighted the destitute condition of the majority population. Among the changes called for was constitutional and political change which would give the majority population some say in the affairs of government and hence make the government a truly representative one. Political parties therefore come on the scene with the aim of bringing about such a change. Parties such as the Barbados Progressive League/ Barbados Labour Party, The Peoples National Party in Jamaica (both founded in 1938) are only two such parties. Trade unions emerged along with the party to fight to secure and protect the rights and interests of the working classes.

These organisations combined at times to fight for meaningful change. This led to the concept known as political unionism.

Political Parties

“Effective political parties are the crux of democratic government; without them democracy withers and decays. Their role is all pervasive. They provide the men and women and the policies for all levels of government.” (An Introduction to British Politics, by P.J. Madgwick).

Definitions:

“An association of people under a specific name whose primary purposes are the achievement and exercise of governmental power.” (Elections and Party Systems in the Commonwealth Caribbean 1944-1991).

“A stable association or group of people uniting, in various degrees, the leading representatives of a social class or various social classes in order to defend the interests of these classes as well as to seek to acquire political power over the state.” (An Introduction to Politics, Trevor Munroe)

“...the articulate organisation of society’s active political agents, those who are concerned with the control of governmental power and who compete for popular support with another group or groups holding divergent views. As such, it is the great intermediary which limits social forces and ideologies to official governmental institutions and relates them to political action within the larger political community.”(Towards a Comparative Study of Political Parties, S. Newman)


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Characteristics:

• Electoral participation

• Structure

• An ideology which would define its programme

• Leadership

• life span

Functions:

Political parties function as an organisation, in the electorate seeking votes, or as the government or opposition in parliament. A party therefore has to:

• recruit members

• raise funds

• select candidates

• deal with issues at the local or constituency level

• campaign and encourage citizens to vote

• present policies and programmes (manifesto).

Political parties became prominent in the Caribbean with the extension of the franchise to blacks and especially with the introduction of adult suffrage in the 1940's and 50's. In earlier times only the white and propertied classes (males) and those earning a specific yearly income were eligible to vote and to offer themselves as candidates. This resulted in the vast majority of the population being disenfranchised.

Caribbean political parties generally exhibited the following characteristics:

• Association with trade unions

• mass based and “ Liberal democratic” in ideology

• Followed a centrist or mixed economic programme

• Charismatic leadership (dominance of a ‘strongman’) e.g. Errol Barrow, Eric Williams (TT& T).


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• Generally pro-western

• Middle class leadership.

Objectives and Programmes (of early parties)

• Constitutional change: adult suffrage, reduce powers of governors, abolition of CCG...

• Nationalisation of industries

• Compulsory education

• State ownership of some sectors of the economy

• From Federation to economic cooperation

• Social security

• Infrastructure

• Economic development: diversification

• Independence

Most political parties and leaders in the English speaking Caribbean have been generally “conservative” and neo-colonial in their ideologies and programmes. They sought change within the confines of a so called liberal democratic capitalistic framework with some ideological postering to the left. Some would argue that they have been pragmatic.

In the 1970's and 1980's some attempts were made by persons such as Michael Manley (PNP) of Jamaica, Forbes Burnham (PNC) of Guyana and Maurice Bishop (NJM/PRG) of Grenada, to chart alternative paths of “development” for their respective territories.

These experiments cannot be considered as a resounding success.

Tutorial Exercises

1) Research one of the major political parties in the English speaking Caribbean, highlighting its leadership, policies and programmes, ideological tendencies and its successes and failures.

2) What are the major problems confronting political parties in the region today?


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Trade Unions

According to C. Barrow-Giles,

“Trade unions in the ...Caribbean developed during the 1930s, amidst a period of labour unrest and a groundswell of labour activity. Although there was an embryonic movement prior to the 1930s, a restrictive political environment enforced by repressive legislation did not facilitate the more rapid development of labour organisations.”

Definitions:

“A continuous association made up primarily of wage earners who use collective labour power mainly to improve their wages working conditions.”

“….A continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment.” (Sidney and Beatrice Webb)

The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions views the trade union as,

“A continuing and permanent democratic organisation, voluntarily created by the workers to:

(a) Protect them at work

(b) Improve the conditions of their work through collective bargaining procedures.

(c) Seek to better the condition of their lives

(d) Secure their natural rights

(e) Provide an effective means of expression for the workers’ views on problems in society.

During the 1930s, labour conditions were so bad that the workers needed to come together as a unified body to agitate for better working conditions. Trade union organisation was desperately needed to fight for better pay, shorter hours, compensation schemes, pensions, severance and general improvements in the working conditions and the lives of the workers generally.

Trade unionism is based on the principle that there is strength in numbers. Workers can withhold their labour through strikes. If workers refuse to work, the employers may have no option than to listen to the demands of the workers. In some instances the employers may have to give in to the legitimate demands of the workers. Without labour the employers


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would be unable to fulfil their commitments in the market place and could possibly lose valuable profits and market share.

Employers generally do not like when their workers are unionised (Note that section 21 0f the Barbados constitution guarantees freedom of assembly and association). This may be due to the fact that the union would be in a better position to bargain on behalf of the workers. This may bring some balance between labour and capital in the bargaining process.

Collective bargaining is the process by which employers (capital) bargain or negotiate with unions (labour) to arrive at a compromise on terms and conditions of employment.

Sometimes this process can break down and the union may resort to: go slows, work to rule, strikes and picketing. Sometimes an employer may seek to terminate the workers.

Two characteristics of early unions:

• mainly blanket unions

• unions were associated with a political party or vice a versa.

Problems faced by early unions:

• Limited numbers who were employed.

• Seasonal employment.

• Political opposition from the local oligarchy and imperial power- reflective in the restrictive laws.

• Difficulties in mobilising agricultural workers-high illiteracy.

• Organisations were unsure of their legal status.(This problem was solved after the Moyne Commission recommended that unions be legalised. In 1939 a Trade Union Act was passed in Barbados).

The social, economic and political conditions during the 1930's and the strikes and riots which resulted were an impetus or catalyst for the formation of unions. Many persons came on the scene to organise the workers- Grantley Adams, Cipriani, Alexander Bustamante, Uriah Butler ...These unions at times worked in harmony with political parties.


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Advantages of political unionism (Barrow- Giles)

• brought labour unions into the political forefront

• made an attack on colonialism and pushed the decolonisation struggle

• assisted in the development of liberal democracy by contributing to competitive party politics (the promotion of pluralism and pressure groups)

Disadvantages of political unionism:

• labour movement became politicised-partisan

• unions became subordinated by the party

• caused problems in the union- difficult to remove leaders who were politically connected.

Major challenges facing trade unions today:

• Downsizing and streamlining

• Structural adjustment policies under the IMF and the World Bank which are generally anti- union

• Application of new technology in the workplace

• Free movement of labour

Tutorial Exercises

1) Examine the development of a major trade union in the English Speaking Caribbean and highlight its major contributions.

2) Account for the close association between political parties and trade unions (using Barbados as a reference). Is this ‘close association’ feasible today? Why/why not?

3) What were some of the major achievements of trade unions?


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WORKSHEET 11 - INDEPENDENCE, SOVEREIGNTY AND DECOLONISATION

The National Anthem of Barbados states in part that,

“....these fields and hills beyond recall are now our very own.” The questions are: What do the above words mean? What does it mean to be independent, to be an independent nation? Can a country or nation as small as Barbados be truly independent? Should such small countries seek independence? Can these countries protect their sovereignty? Can these countries remove the influences of colonialism and neo-colonialism? Attaining Independence for us in the English Speaking Caribbean involved the transfer of sovereignty from colonial authorities to local control. The local government is in control of both internal and external affairs. It is the beginning of the process of decolonisation. To some extent an independent country can be described as politically decolonised. C. Barrow Giles (2002) suggests that there are two dimensions to sovereignty: The formal and legal aspect of sovereignty, which means the freedom of the state from outside interference, within the limits set by the international community of states (UN). The political aspect which refers to the ability of states to take advantage of their formal independence through economic, technical, psychological, socio-cultural and military means.

Characteristics of Independence • National symbols • Full legislative powers (s48 (1) of the constitution) • Judicial freedom? • An indigenous head of government/head of state? • Territorial and political sovereignty • membership of international bodies e.g. UN, WTO, IMF • Independent body of law (constitution) Sometimes too much emphasis is placed on the national symbols (the form and not the substance) of an independent nation. However Eric Williams of T&T said,

“...it takes more than a national anthem, however stirring, a national coat of arms however distinctive, a national flag however appropriate, a national flower however beautiful, to make a nation.”


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The term independence traditionally connotated liberation from the yoke of foreign oppression and the freedom of a community to pursue policies and purposes which reflected its own interests and values. From this perspective, political independence was seen as a phenomenon which generally uplifted the collective integrity of a group. Its attainment was thought to imply the liberation of the spirit and creative energies of individuals from the whims and fancies of external and previously uncontrollable forces. Through its impact it was believed that whole communities of subjects could be transformed into free communities of citizens. However this does not seem to be the case today. For, with the rapid dissolution of European colonial empires which followed world war 11, independence is now more or less taken for granted.

As local leaders in colonial territories asserted their right to independence, Britain was increasingly compelled to make concessions to their demands (On December 14th.1960 the UN adopted a Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, which stated among other things that the “subjection of peoples to alien subjugation, domination and exploitation” constituted “a denial of fundamental human rights..”). However the concessions which were made appear to have been more symbolic than real; if local leaders demanded independence, they were given independence. However imperial powers pacified and placated colonial discontent by offering the myth while withholding the reality of national political sovereignty.

The advent of the document (the constitution) prescribing independence was generally welcomed with solemn ceremonies and spectacular displays. But for the great majority of citizens in the allegedly newly independent states, life continued in much the same way that it did before.

Fanon has shown that the notion of independence as a gift bestowed by generous metropolitan governments on grateful “natives” has served to warp the collective psyche of both masses and elites, and perpetuate the reality of continued colonisation and foreign control; what Nkrumah called neo-colonialism.

According to Fanon, nothing which is really worthwhile is ever attained without a struggle. For Fanon, the promise of independence was lost when European colonisers began to establish timetables for their withdrawal from the “third world.” He believed that violence was essential for genuine liberation.

Dates of Independence Jamaica 1962: under Alexander Bustamante Trinidad and Tobago 1962: under Eric Williams Guyana 1966: under L. Forbes Burnham Barbados 1966: under Errol Barrow Bahamas 1973 St Vincent 1979 St Lucia 1979


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Extracts of speeches made by the late Errol Barrow

“Our relations with the Crown have always been warm and it is the unanimous desire of our citizens that Her Majesty shall be queen and Head of State of an independent Barbados” (July 1966).

“My government ...will not be found loitering on colonial premises after closing time.” (July 1966).

“....We will be friends of all satellites of none” (December 1966, at the UN on Barbados’ admission).

Challenges of Independence: • Forging closer ties among the islands after the break up of the federation in 1962. • Economic diversification • Economic growth and development- the provision of jobs and raising the standards of

living of the people. • meeting the varied expectations of the people. • mobilising the population.. • security and protection-internally and externally. • provision of social services and the reduction of poverty-education, health care and other

services. • Neo-colonialism • 21st.Cntury challenges include: globalisation and free trade, the “demise” of the nation-state,

spread of capitalism, structural adjustment of economies, use of technology, the pervasiveness of the foreign media...

Tutorial exercise

1. What is the Shiprider’s Agreement? Is this a threat to Caribbean sovereignty?

2. What arguments can be advanced for and against small countries such as Barbados

seeking independence?

3. How well has Caribbean countries met the challenges of independence?

Decolonisation Decolonisation is a process whereby a formerly colonised people seek to remove the negative effects and influences of political, economic, cultural and psychological domination imposed upon them by a foreign power.


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Kwame Nkrumah said: “Seek ye first the political kingdom and all things shall be added unto it.”

William Demas said,

“Decolonisation in the West Indies as in other parts of the Third World is a process of renewal, a process of striking out on one’s own....It involves the creation of new attitudes and new values... new structures and new institutions. Decolonisation begins in the mind.”

Decolonisation must be concerned with the psychological and material welfare of the people. For decolonisation to take place it would help for the societies to be protected from external ideological, cultural and economic influence for a time (very unlikely since our countries and small and open societies in relative close proximity to the USA. Note also the impact of technology: MCTV, Direct TV, Satellites, the Internet).

Students should examine Caribbean societies to determine the extent that decolonisation is manifested in the following:

• The Political System • The Legal System • Education • Culture: including our values. • The Mass Media • The Church • The Economic System. Bob Marley sang “Emancipate yourself from mental slavery.. none but ourselves can free our minds....”

Tutorial Exercise 1) Aren’t Caribbean countries already overwhelmed with foreign values, attitudes and behaviours and hence it is too late to create our own identity?

2) We have no viable alternatives to offer the people? Discuss critically.


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WORKSHEET 12 - PART 111: SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CHALLENGES

The IMF and Structural Adjustment in the Caribbean. One of the most important post independent challenges facing governments concerned managing the economies of the various territories. The economies were small, open and possess relatively limited natural resources. Caribbean economies were on the periphery of capitalism caught in a dependency on foreign investment, finance capital, tourism and a huge import bill. Manufacturing was minuscule and exports were weak relative to imports. The economic structure of the islands was there fragile. This situation was exacerbated by the oil crisis of the 1970s, which sent economic shockwaves throughout the world. High inflation negatively impacted on all islands. Some Caribbean countries experimented with alternative developmental models (Non-capitalist Path of Development). For example Jamaica under Michael Manley adopted a policy called Democratic Socialism; Forbes Burnham in Guyana adopted Cooperative Socialism. The reaction of international capitalism to these developments was negative. (NB: this was at a time when the Cold War was at its most virulent). Caribbean economies were therefore faced a number of internal and external factors that made them non-competitive in an increasing competitive world. Eventually some Caribbean countries were forced to seek structural adjustment (assistance) from the International Monetary Fund. Most Caribbean countries had of course joined the fund just after the attainment of independence. Jamaica and Guyana sought assistance from the fund in the 1970s and 1980s; Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados in the 1980s, Barbados again in the 1990s. Presently Dominica is an arrangement with the fund.

The International Monetary Fund Due to the economic devastation of the economic depression of the 1930s and the effects of World War 11, a rebuilding process was necessary. A major conference was held at Bretton Woods in 1944 (USA) by the major western allies. Out of this conference came: • GATT • World Bank • The International Monetary Fund

The main purposes of the IMF: • The promotion of international monetary cooperation through consultation on

international monetary problems.


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• The facilitation of expansion and growth in international trade leading to high employment levels and real income.

• The promotion of exchange rate stability and the avoidance of competitive exchange

depreciation. • The elimination of foreign exchange restrictions. • The provision of resources to members under adequate safeguards to correct

maladjustments in their balance of payments without measures destructive of national or international prosperity.

Structural Adjustment This is one of the “services” offered by the IMF. Structural adjustment programmes seek to cure or correct a deep seated problem or set of problems- that of an economy in a state of severe and long lasting structural difficulties that places it at the point of an economic crisis. The structure of an economy is concerned with the way the economy works -is it earning foreign exchange to pay for imports, does its imports exceed its exports, does the government have excessive expenditures when compared to revenue. Adjustment would seek to correct these defects by reducing expenditure and increasing revenue, increase exports and where necessary reduce imports (temporarily). All of these measures will be done under the supervision of the staff (economists) at the IMF (headquartered in Washington D.C). The immediate objective is to supply the country with the much need foreign exchange to offset bankruptcy. According to Josephine Dublin quoted in Storm Signals (1991), “The economic devastation wrecked upon the Caribbean peoples, through economic policies whose true purpose is hidden from us, is crushing our hopes for a better future. It is increasing poverty, especially among women, breaking up families, and deepening the cries of our children, even those yet unborn. The dependency syndrome purposely designed to favour US interests has tied our economies in debt that each one of us is forced to pay until we reach our death bed.” According to Kathy McAfee (1991), the purpose of structural adjustment is to, “....improve the fiscal balance sheets of governments and stimulate economic growth, mainly by increasing exports. The idea is that impoverished countries will be able to dig their way out of debt and become paying customers in the global market place. Structural adjustment redirects resources away from consumption by citizens of indebted countries in the south and


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toward debt payments to foreign lenders in the north. It shifts capital, minerals, land and labour away from production for local needs and towards increased production for export.”

Reasons for Structural Adjustment (The Barbados reality 1991) High debt repayments to international lending agencies and high public sector debt sometimes caused by mismanagement and the political reluctance to increase rates of public utilities and services. • Budget deficits which become difficult to sustain and manage • Balance of payments difficulties due sometimes to excessive levels of consumption of

semi-luxury and luxury imported goods. • Weak productive sectors not earning foreign exchange- manufacturing, tourism,

sugar. • falling prices on the world market for our main exports, • inadequate local food production for the local market-hence a high food import bill • increase in the price of essential exports sometimes due to fluctuations in the value of

our currency which is tied to the US dollar. • rising international rates • depletion of foreign exchange reserves which can threaten the stability and value of

the local currency. A country may experience some or all of these ailments. In such a situation, the structure of the economy has to be improved, for what is needed is to promote economic development and growth. Without this the international economy could be adversely affected since such a country would not be in a position to participate in international trade. Such countries would therefore be forced in the short term to “consume less and to increase their export earnings at the same time. Structural adjustment was the tool for making sure that they did so.” (K. McAfee)

IMF Conditionalities/policies • Devaluation (increase cost of imports, reduces cost of exports). The aim is to reduce


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consumption and hence save foreign exchange. Leads to increase cost of living. This affects all classes by reducing their income and standard of living.

• Higher personal taxation e.g. VAT. This reduces disposable income and reduces the

standard of living of all especially the poor. • Reduction in budget expenditure- leads to cut backs in public spending on social

services-shortages, delays and deterioration in services. This largely affects the poor who are more dependent on government services- health, welfare...

• Reduction in state owned enterprises (privatisation) the state is thus prevented from

playing a dominant role in the economy (decline of socialism?) And hence is unable to meet the demands of various classes especially the poor.

• Reduction in wages and wage restraint (wage freeze). This reduces the income of

employees and hence reduces the standard of living of people especially state employees.

• Large scale retrenchment of government employees (sometimes the private sector

follows ). Reduces government expenditure but the standard of living of the people declines drastically.

• Incentives to the private sector- price increase, duty free concessions, reduce

severance payments. Effect-increase profits for the private sector at the expense of the workers and small businesses.

• Reduction or elimination of subsidies and price controls on basic items- profits to the

rich, the poor suffers. Less real income due to inflation. • Emphasis on debt repayment and the repatriation of profits. Sometimes at the

expense of imports of food, raw materials and spare parts- deterioration of services. Leads to shortages, increase costs, lack of spare parts for some business may lead to layoff. Hoarding of supplies by private sector-increase prices.

Consequences (Sometimes the operation is successful but the patient dies.) The IMF’S recipes for economic health have in many case fail to cure, indeed have worsened, the sickness (Jamaica and Guyana?). According to UNICEF, they have increased hunger, sickness and poverty and the cost of living. Massive unemployment and its resultant


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problems are common. It would be easy, but wrong, to place all the blame for deteriorating conditions on the fund. The vicious cycle of national poverty in many countries is caused by a number of economic factors, both internal and external. It is interesting to note that Barbados is one of the few, if not the only country to survive SAP without a devaluation of it currency. The process of structural adjustment is by its nature a long process and can inflict more suffering on citizens, especially the already disadvantaged and poorer groups including the unemployed. The real problem with SAP under IMF and World Bank programs is the speed with which corrective measures have to be undertaken and the necessity of having to advance on a very broad front with many different measures undertaken simultaneously.

Tutorial Exercises 1) What were the major consequences of the structural adjustment programme in Barbados? 2) What policies did the Sandiford Administration pursue to prevent a devaluation of the currency? 3) Examine the economic, social and political impact of devaluation on Jamaica, Guyana and T& T.


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WORKSHEET 13 - CARIBBEAN INTEGRATION: FROM FEDERATION TO CSME

West Indian politician take heed while I sing.... Cause you tell Trini, he better than Bajan you tell Baje, he smarter than Jamaican

you tell Jamaican, he live on the best island Then turn ‘round and tell them

you preaching island integration

West Indian politician I check out your evil ploy and de more ah hear you

the more you sound like Westminster choir boy West Indian politician I check out your history nd because you train in England Westminster

choking we. (West Indian Politician, By the Mighty Gabby)

“If we have sometimes failed to comprehend the essence of the regional integration movement, the truth is that thousands of ordinary Caribbean people do, in fact, live that reality every day. In Barbados, our families are no longer exclusively Barbadian by island origin. We have Barbadian children of Jamaican mothers; Barbadian children of Antiguan and St Lucian fathers.... And this fact of regional togetherness is lived everyday....It is a reality which is lived, but which we have not yet been able to institutionalise.” (The Late Errol Barrow, 3 July 1986)

Tutorial exercise: What institutions exist that represent an aspect of “regional togetherness”?

“Only structural transformation of economies can rescue peoples from old and new debt and continuing servitude....the challenge…. to turn the geographic, historical and cultural commonalities of the region; to economic and political advantage and unity. No country can ignore the current of globalisation now sweeping the world. The countries of our region must negotiate together and firmly and we need to push our governments to do this, since they are failing to do so. Regional integration is the only way to insert ourselves into global trends from a position of independence and with the power to resist domination” (Levy)

Factors encouraging regional unity

1) A common history (European and African ancestry, slavery, exploitation etc)


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2) Similar colonial experiences 3) Similar political institutions and ideologies (“Westminster system, Capitalist/socialist

ideas) 4) Similar social, economic and political issues (high debt, crime, drug abuse and

trafficking, unemployment) 5) Similar official language and culture 6) Neo-colonialistic experiences and relations with the developed world 7) All subjected to cultural imperialism and the resultant social tensions 8) The impact of international trading blocs e.g. EEC, NAFTA. 9) Decisions of the WTO.

Factors encouraging regional fragmentation

1) Geographical separation 2) Different rates and levels of growth and economic and social development 3) Disparities in exchange rates e.g. Guyana $160 =1US, Barbados $2=1US. 4) Parochialism and insularity 5) Competition for international aid and tourists 6) Isolation from centuries of colonialism 7) Xenophobia 8) Territories are independent and sovereign states 9) Lack of commitment from regional leaders 10) Limited knowledge/understanding of the dynamics and benefits of integration 11) The “go it alone” attitude of some Caribbean leaders. 12) History-a long history of fragmentation-years of isolation under colonialism Tutorial Question: Can these factors be overcome? How?

Advantages of regional integration

1) A stronger voice internationally (this will involve a coordination of the countries’ foreign policy position)


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2) Regional control over regional resources 3) Less dependency on foreigners 4) Increase regional trade: less outflow of currency 5) Increase movement of people from the region within the region 6) Increase job and business opportunities for Caribbean people (investment, service

provision...,) 7) Expansion of regional businesses e.g. through franchising 8) The creation of a regional identity. 9) Increased output of goods and services 10) Bigger markets for CARICOM goods and services

Forms of Integration

1) Social and Economic: CARIFTA, CARICOM, Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME). 2) Political: Confederation or Federation 1958-62. Note that in 1992 a West Indian Commission chaired by Sir S. Ramphal, was established to make recommendations on the way forward for the region. The commission said in its report, Time for Action:

“Both federation and other forms of political union involve surrender of sovereignty to a federal or unitary government.... we do not believe that a political climate for this exist in the region.”

If political integration of the region seems unlikely in the foreseeable future then what are the options for the region?

Economic cooperation and integration of the regional economies? CSME? Is the latter a viable option?

Before this can be examined students need to take an historical excursion into the past and examine the previous attempts at integration, starting with the Federal Experiment.

The Federal Experiment 1958-62.

In 1958 Great Britain organised the West Indies Federation among (10) the majority of its West Indian colonies partly to avoid granting independence to seemingly small non-viable


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micro-states and for economic and administrative convenience. This experiment was terminated when Britain allowed Jamaica to withdraw and seek independence in 1962.

A federation is a system of government where political power is divided between a central government and regional/state governments. The various levels are relatively autonomous and “independent,” with neither being subordinate to the other. There is the constitutionally guaranteed division of power between the different levels of government and an independent judiciary that acts as interpreter and guardian. Under a federal system of government, all citizens are subject to at least two sets of authorities (governments).

Reasons why the Federation failed

• Manipulation on the part of the British Government

• Differences among the leaders of the various territories on the structure of the federation.

• Parochialism

• Differences in the level of development- the two most developed countries carried the economic burden of the federation

• Some influential regional leaders refused to enter federal politics

• Jamaican political leaders were eager for constitutional advancement-independence

• The federal government was weak.

• Mainland territories refused to join -Guyana, Belize.

• Trade and communication between the territories was sporadic. After the federation collapsed in 1962 attempts were made to forge economic ties between the territories:

CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Area) 1968-73

The original plan to establish CARIFTA came about in July 1965 when Antigua, Barbados and Guyana (Bird, Barrow and Burnham) signed the Dickenson Bay Agreement. The members in 1968 were: Antigua, Barbados, Guyana, T&T, St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, St Lucia, and St Vincent. Jamaica and Montserrat joined later; with Belize joining in 1971.

CARICOM (Caribbean community/Caribbean Common Market) .

The Treaty of Chaguaramas which established the Caribbean Community was signed at Chaguaramas, Trinidad on July 4, 1973 and came into force on August 1 of that same year. This new organisation was the successor to CARIFTA. CARICOM presently consists of 15


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states: Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St Lucia, St Kitts & Nevis, St Vincent & the Grenadines and Trinidad & Tobago.

CARICOM’s main purpose is to further economic integration and cooperation among its members. Both common external tariffs and common protective policies for trade with countries beyond its membership were established by CARICOM to protect goods produced in the region.

The three (3) main areas of activity of the Caribbean Community 1. The pursuit of economic integration; 2. Functional or non-economic cooperation which now covers an increasing number of

areas, ranging from common services such as UWI to LIAT. 3. The coordination of the foreign policies of member states Dr. Eric Williams in critiquing why CARICOM failed to achieve more for the various territories in terms of trade and economic development stated that: · the arrangement the greater part of the Caribbean-:- Cuba, Puerto Rico etc · there were deep divisions in the community · the treaty had been broken more than it had been observed.

Caribbean Single Market & Economy

Background

In 1989, the Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) at there Tenth Conference in Grand Anse, Grenada, declared their intention to deepen the integration process and strengthen the Caribbean Community in all its dimensions. The Heads, at the time, determined that the region should work towards the establishment of a single market and economy as one aspect of its response to the challenges and opportunities resented by the changes in the global economy. By 1992, at their Thirteenth Conference, the technical work on, and conceptualisation of, the CSME was completed and presented for endorsement by the Heads of Government.

Rationale

The CSME was conceived as an instrument to facilitate economic development of the member states in an increasingly liberalised and globalised international environment; to assist in the realisation of the following objectives: a) Full employment of all the factors of production


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b) Improved standards of living and work c) Accelerated, coordinated and sustained economic development d) Increased economic leverage and effectiveness in other states e) Expansion of trade and economic relations with other Caribbean countries, Central and

Latin American countries f) Increased levels of competiveness. The Caribbean Single Market & Economy (CSME) is an arrangement which seeks to create a single economic space without cross-border restrictions and to allow for the free movement of goods and services, labour and capital among member states of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).

It is an effort by CARICOM countries which have been functioning as separate and distinct entities, each motivated by their own national interests, to evolve into one market and one economy, free of restrictive barriers, and governed by common rules, policies and institutions. It is a regional arrangement which involves legal, institutional and administrative provisions, systems and actions which must e reflected at the national level.

There are two broad components to the CSME:

1) The Single Market : This is an initiative which allows goods, services, people and capital o move throughout the Caribbean Community without barriers and any other restrictions. Its aim is to achieve a single large economic space, and to provide for a common economic and trade policy to govern that space.

Presently provision has been made for the free movement of the following persons: University graduates, skilled artisans, artists, musicians, journalist/media workers, sports persons, managers and service providers. (This aspect came into effect Jan, 2006)

2) The Single Economy: Seeks to harmonise the economic, monetary and fiscal policies and measures of all member states of the Caribbean Community, with the objective of achieving a common regional policy in these areas. It is an arrangement in which foreign exchange and interest rate policies, tax regimes, laws and national currencies, among other things, are coordinated and harmonised. (Not yet in place).

To create the CSME the Treaty of Chaguaramas had to be revised in order to provide the official legal framework within which the common market could be transformed into a single market and economy. CARICOM was very limited in its conceptualisation of a common market.


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The Treaty was revised in 9 principal areas called PROTOCOLS. These are as follows:

1 & 2: Restructuring of the Organs and Institutions of the Community 3: Right of Establishment, Provision of services and movement of capital 4: Industrial & Agricultural Policy 5: Trade Policy 6: Transportation Policy 7: Disadvantaged Countries, regions and sectors 8: Competition policy and consumer protection 9: Disputes Settlement.

Tutorial Question:

What are the potential disadvantages of the CSME?

Other institutions that reflect regional integration

1. OECS 2. CXC 3. CDB 4. CTO 5. WICB 6. CCC Carefully examine the above institutions and describe the role they play in the regional integration process? Tutorial Questions: 1. What can be done, if anything, to further strengthen the integration process? 2. Should the English speaking Caribbean integrate politically? 3. What are the major stumbling blocks to the full implementation of the CSME? 4. Can you have a CSME without freedom of movement?


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Worksheet #14 - Globalisation Globalisation refers to a growing sense of interconnectedness. It is the ways in which developments in one region can rapidly come to have significant consequences for the security and well being of communities in quite distant regions of the globe. It expresses the widening scope, deepening impact and speeding up of interregional flows and networks of interaction within all realms of social activity from the cultural to the criminal. It is not just an economic phenomenon, but includes all the key arenas of modern life: the economic, political, legal, cultural, military and the ecological.

The Four Dimensions of Globalisation Globalisation is characterised by four types of change: ♦ It involves a stretching of social, political and economic activities across political

frontiers, regions and continents. National sovereignty is becoming increasingly irrelevant. ♦ It suggests the intensification, or the growing magnitude of interconnectedness, i.e. flows

of trade, investment, finance, migration, culture, etc. ♦ The growing intensity of interdependence as world trade systems of transport and

communication increases the speed of the diffusion of ideas, goods, information, capital and people.

♦ The growing intensity of interdependence with the deepening impact such that the effects of distant events can be highly significant elsewhere and even the most local developments may come to have enormous global consequences. In this sense, the boundary between domestic matters and global affairs is becoming blurred.

Aspects of Globalisation. • The tendencies for the trans-national corporations to organise production on a global

basis: (a) TNCs now comprise over 500,000 foreign affiliates established by some 60,000

parent companies based mainly in developed countries. N.b. the expansion of offshore financial markets

(b) The world's largest non financial TNCs together held U.S $ 1.8 trillion in foreign assets, sold US $2.1 trillion and employed some six million persons in their foreign affiliates in 1997. E.g. Pepsi, Coca-cola, Wal-Mart, K-Mart

(c) TNCs are major vehicles for the transmission of technology across national borders, and these technologies themselves have influenced patterns of production, market structures and industrial relations systems throughout the world.


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• In the last decade technological investment in the communications/information infrastructure has made possible the deregulation of markets and globalisation of capital. (a) This has facilitated the emergence of global banking and globally integrated money

markets of a supranational economy of stateless monies. 9 much of the world's savings tend to be intermediated by large private financial

institutions .e.g. Barclays Bank, Citibank (b) Virtually instantaneous transfers of billions of dollars are a daily occurrence in

today's international economy and as a result physical barriers have become permeable to financial regulation. 9 increasingly central banks cannot adequately control the trends of global flows

in financial markets, but instead must exercise flexibility and dexterity when coordinating global economic activities.

• Transition to computerised technology - perceiving the immense economic, social and political opportunities associated with the information technology (IT) revolution of the 1990s, the G71 states promoted the idea of a global information society. (a) IT has become “one of the most potent forces in shaping the 21st century…its

revolutionary impact affects the way people live, learn, work and the way government interacts with civil society.”2

(b) It is suggested that the GISDN (Global Integrated Services Digital Network) infrastructure currently being developed will be as important for today's economy as the railways, roads and canals were for the industrial era and automobiles in the post-war boom.

What's driving globalisation Globalisation today is driven by a confluence of forces: Economic shifts. The natural tendency of capitalism to expand is expressed increasingly in the information age in the need of business, large and small to compete in regional and global markets. Technological Shifts: The ICT revolution greatly facilitates globalisation in every domain from the economic to the criminal. Political shifts: The last two decades have witnessed a change in ideology to privatisation, economic liberalisation, which make societies more open to the world.

1 Since 1975, the Heads of State and/or Government of the major industrial democracies have met annually to deal with the major economic and political issues facing their domestic societies and the international community as a whole. The eight countries of the G7 are Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United States of America and Russia.http://www.g7.utoronto.ca. 2 The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, (1994) “20th Naples Summit Communiqué,” available from the website: http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/economy/summit/2000.


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Cultural shifts: the growth of transnational movements such as Greenpeace articulates that the fate of nations and communities is increasingly bound up with the dynamics of the global economy and the global environment.

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) The WTO is emerging as a major player in world affairs and it heavily reflects the views of the developed countries; because of its overwhelming presence, it is forcing conformity even among non-believers in the free market. The WTO was established by the Marrakesh Agreement signed on 15 April 1994 in Marrakesh, Morocco, and came into being on 01 January 1995. The WTO replaced the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was the main agency for dealing with international trade negotiations in the post-WW2 era. Whereas the GATT focussed mainly on trade in goods; the WTO covers trade in goods, trade in services, investments, and the regulation of international property rights. The WTO has two basic aims and three primary functions. These are:

AIMS. § to promote and regulate free and fair trade internationally § to negotiate international trade agreements and settle international trade disputes

FUNCTIONS. • ensuring the free flow of global trade • facilitate trade negotiations between countries • serving as a trade dispute settlement body

The functions are mainly to ensure that trade between nations flows as smoothly, predictably, fairly and freely as possible.

Free Trade and Trade Liberalisation. The act of opening up economies is known as "free trade" or "trade liberalisation". It usually benefits the larger, wealthier countries whose big companies are looking to expand and sell their goods abroad. In the one sector where developing countries have the most to gain - agricultural goods - wealthier countries maintain the highest level of "protection" of their own markets. Trade liberalisation means opening up markets by bringing down trade barriers such as tariffs. Doing this allows goods and services from everywhere to compete with domestic products and services on generally an equal basis. The support by government of national interests, through tariff and non-tariff measures, is known as “protectionism”. The removal of such trade barriers, combined with improvements


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in international communication, technology and transportation, has led to increasingly interdependent economies in global basis.

Guiding Principles. * Non-discrimination - equal treatment for foreign products, a focus on non-tariff barriers to

trade thus countries must open markets to foreign goods and services * Liberalisation - reduction\removal of trade restrictions, e.g. subsidies and tariffs * Predictability - assurances that conditions supporting free trade are maintained in countries

along with the enforcement of intellectual property rights * Competition - promotion of fair competition between all member states of the WTO,

industrial property rights of foreign companies must be protected

Trade as a Weapon. Goods and services have been traded internationally for centuries. Historically, this trade has been controlled by governments, either through force, or import and export taxes (tariffs), subsidies and other regulations. Whatever the method of intervention, the aim has always been to maintain favourable terms of trade for the country exercising these measures. Trade is not always equal. It is not just a tool - it can also be a weapon: § When countries put restrictions, such as tariffs, on goods from other countries, imported

goods become more expensive and less competitive than goods from their own country. § Subsidising domestic businesses, this means that governments give money or other forms

of support to local\domestic businesses, to ensure that they are cheaper than imported products and services. This can allow unsuccessful and inefficient businesses to profit since they receive all kinds of government support. While these businesses continue to grow, smaller or local producers, especially in many poorer countries - those that need support the most - are being destroyed.

§ Measures such as these are "protectionist" since they have the effect of closing off a country's markets to goods from other countries. Many wealthy European countries, the U.S.A and Japan use these tactics to support their own domestic economies, making it impossible for smaller, or less developed countries to gain a foothold in the global marketplace.

§ As these countries go about protecting and closing off their own markets, they are creating double standards, by forcing other countries to open up their markets

Advantages. • Trade is the primary vehicle for realising the benefits of globalisation. Imports bring

additional competition and variety to domestic markets, benefiting consumers, and exports enlarge foreign markets, benefiting businesses.

• More importantly, trade exposes domestic firms to the best practices of foreign firms and to the demand of discerning customers, encouraging greater efficiency. Economies


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receiving inflows of capital benefit in many ways, management expertise, training programs and important linkages to suppliers and international markets often accompany the capital.

Disadvantages. • The removal of barriers and controls has led to the phenomenal growth of money

laundering and smuggling and facilitated the transfer of disease and spread of drug use. (a) Whereas states could previously be seen as gate keepers insulating domestic

economies from the ravages of the international economy their policy has now been reduced to the point where they have in fact become agents transmitting the requirements of the globalising economy onto the domestic economy to meet the needs of the international economy.

• Traditional concepts of sovereignty have been challenged and market forces driven by private interests can wreak havoc with public policy. (a) There are transnational corporations with more resources than national governments

and the greater freedom to move goods and capital have put them in a particularly powerful position.

Implications\Effects of Globalisation for the Caribbean. Some do not see globalisation as representing any qualitative change in the functioning of the world economy, arguing that external developments have always exerted pressures on Caribbean economies, which are forced to adapt. 1. It is argued that globalisation merely reflects the past with the progressive integration of

the world's economies and the Caribbean always on the periphery with external forces always dictating its status, its values, its laws, its well-being, its ideas, its foreign policy, and its social and economic stability. Its future they argue has never been certain or assured and words like 'fragile,' 'volatile,' and 'vulnerable' are an integral part of the vocabulary used to describe Caribbean states.

2. The unevenness of globalisation compounds the above insecurities since 'it would appear that the strong are becoming stronger and the weak weaker' as the benefits of globalisation accrue to a relatively small proportion of the world's population whilst global poverty and social exclusion continue to increase. (a) Loss of preference for products in traditional markets - bananas, rum, sugar. E.g. the

EU preferential treatment for Windward Island bananas conflicted with requirements of GATT\WTO.

(b) fall in earning [GDP] due to the above (c) loss of jobs

3. Contemporary globalisation generates constraints upon what governments and communities can do whilst simultaneously opening up new opportunities and possibilities. But some are more constrained than others and some have greater resources


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than others to exploit these opportunities since globalisation is a highly uneven process: it results in clear winners and losers, not just within between countries but within and across them. (a) reduction in sovereignty since domestic and foreign policy can now be dictated by

outside forces; e.g. the removal of subsidies and protection for local industries and businesses as demanded by WTO

4. Globalisation has to be understood as a process that both unites and divides people and communities. It does not automatically follow that humanity is becoming a single global community.

The Growth of Regionalism Globalisation tends to be associated with a perception of powerlessness and chronic insecurity in that the speed and scale of contemporary global social and economic change appear to overwhelm governments, politicians and communities. A response to the rapidly changing world economy is regionalism - witness the growth of mega-blocs in the field of trade. The world is forming itself into massive trading blocs, e.g. the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA); the European Union (EU); the emergence of the Pacific Rim consisting mainly of Japan, China, Taiwan, North and South Korean; the ASEAN countries (including, inter alia Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia). Globalisation has given impetus to the regional integration movement with the formation of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME). It is hoped that with CSME, the region will negotiate from a unified position and that there will be protection for regional industries.

References and Suggested Reading: Carrington, E. (2000) 'The Challenge of Change,' in Hall, K. and Benn, D. (eds.) (2000)

Contending with Destiny: The Caribbean in the 21st Century, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.

Commonwealth Secretariat (1997) A Future for Small States: Overcoming Vulnerability, London: Commonwealth Secretariat. Demas, W. (1992) Towards West Indian Survival, Barbados: West Indian Commission Secretariat. Girvan, N. (2000) 'Creating and Recreating the Caribbean in Hall, K. and Benn, D. (Eds.)

(2000) Contending with Destiny: The Caribbean in the 21st Century, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.

Hall, K. and Benn, D. (eds.) (2000) Contending with Destiny: The Caribbean in the 21st Century, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.


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McGrew A. (2000) 'Sustainable Globalisation? The Global Politics of Development and

Exclusion on the New World order,' in Allen, T. And Thomas, A. (eds.) (2000) Poverty and Development into the 21st Century, London: Oxford University Press.

Munroe, T. (2002) Introduction to Politics: Lecturers for First Year Students, Canoe Press, Jamaica. Chapter 20 Ramsaran, R. (2002) 'The Caribbean and the Global Challenge,' in Ramsaran, R. (ed.) (2002) Caribbean Survival and the Global Challenge, Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers. Sandiford, L.E. (2000) Politics and Society in Barbados and the Caribbean: An

Introduction, Cassia Publishing Ltd, Bridgetown; Chapter 11 West Indian Commission (1992) An Overview of the Report of the West Indian Commission: Time for Action, Barbados: West Indian Commission

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