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Cardiovascular System
Blood
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Composition of Blood
Blood is the body’s only fluid tissue It is composed of liquid plasma and formed elements Formed elements include:
– Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs)– Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs)– Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Hematocrit – the percentage of RBCs out of the total blood volume
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Composition of Blood
Figure 18.1
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Physical Characteristics and Volume
Blood is a viscous, opaque fluid with a metallic taste.
Color varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to dark red (oxygen-poor)
The pH of blood is 7.35–7.45Temperature is 38C, slightly higher than
“normal” body temperatureAverage volume of blood is 5–6 L for males,
and 4–5 L for females
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Functions of BloodTransports gases, nutrients,
hormones, and metabolic wastes
Regulates pH and electrolyte balance
Hemostasis: maintains blood volume
Defends the body against toxins and pathogens
Stabilizes body temperature
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Blood Plasma
Plasma makes up 55% of the total blood volume:– 92% of plasma is water– Proteins
Albumins: maintain osmotic pressure of blood Globulins: antibodies and transport proteins Fibrinogens: involved in blood clotting
– Nonprotein nitrogenous substances – lactic acid, urea, creatinine
– Organic nutrients – glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids– Electrolytes – sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride,
bicarbonate – Respiratory gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide
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Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Biconcave discsLack a nucleusFilled with hemoglobin
(Hb), a protein that functions in transporting Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Normally produced in the red marrow of bones.
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Erythrocyte Function Erythrocytes are dedicated to respiratory gas transport Hemoglobin reversibly binds with oxygen and carbon
dioxide Hemoglobin is composed of:
– The protein globin, made up of two alpha and two beta chains, each bound to a heme group.
– Each heme group carries an atom of iron, which can bind to oxygen.
– As oxygen levels decrease, hemoglobin molecules release oxygen and the globin portion binds to carbon dioxide.
Each hemoglobin molecule can transport four molecules of oxygen
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Erythrocyte Function
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Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Erythropoietin (EPO) release by the kidneys is triggered by:– Hypoxia (low oxygen) due to decreased RBCs– Decreased oxygen availability (high altitude)– Increased tissue demand for oxygen (exercise)
Enhanced erythropoiesis increases the: – RBC count in circulating blood– Oxygen carrying ability of the blood increases
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Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Figure 18.6
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Leukocytes (WBCs)
Leukocytes, the only blood components that are complete cells:– Are less numerous than RBCs– Make up 1% of the total blood volume (normal count
6000-9000 per cubic mm.)– Can leave capillaries through tissue spaces via
diapedesisLeukocytosis – WBC count over 11,000 per
cubic mm.– Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion
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Leukocytes (WBCs)Two categories:
– Granulocytes:Neutrophils: Phagocytic, release cytotoxic
chemicalsEosinophils: attack antibody-labeled and parasitic pathogensBasophils: release histamines, enhance
inflammation– Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes: provides specific immune response
Monocytes: macrophages engulf pathogens or debris
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Platelets
Cell fragments Functions in the clotting mechanism (Hemostasis) Forms a temporary “Platelet Plug” that helps seal
breaks in blood vessels.
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Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
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LymphocyteNeutrophil
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Monocyte
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Eosinophil
Lymphocyte
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Basophil
Monocyte
Neutrophil
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1
2
3
4
5
6
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1. Monocyte
2. Lymphocyte
3. Eosinophil
4. Neutrophil
5. Basophil
6. Neutrophil
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Sickle cell anemia: abnormal formation of hemoglobin, which causes RBC’s to be deformed, and causes poor oxygen circulation, and blood clots.
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Leukemia: Cancer of blood forming tissues, causing elevated levels of and abnormal formation of WBC’s.
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Hemostasis
A series of reactions designed for stoppage of bleeding
During hemostasis, three phases occur in rapid sequence– Vascular Phase– Platelet Phase– Coagulation (blood clotting) Phase
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Hemostasis
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Hemostasis
Vascular Phase:– Smooth muscles in the walls of blood vessels
constrict– The decrease in the diameter of the blood vessel
slows and sometimes stops blood loss.– Endothelial cells at an injury site become sticky, and
cells may stick together further blocking the injury site.
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Hemostasis
Platelet Phase:– Platelets attach to “sticky” endothelial cells at the
injury site.– As more platelets arrive, a “Platelet Plug” forms, a
mass of cells that may block the break in the vessel wall.
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Hemostasis
Coagulation Phase:– Coagulation = Blood Clotting– Occurs when a series of steps results in the formation
of fibrin.– Fibrin is an insoluble protein “net” that traps blood
cells and platelets which form a blood clot.– The blood clot seals off the damaged portion of the
blood vessel.
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Blood Typing
A system of categorizing blood based on the surface antigens of RBC’s (agglutinogens)
Three of the most important antigens: A, B and Rh
When serum containing anti-A or anti-B agglutinins is added to blood, agglutination will occur between the agglutinin and the corresponding agglutinogens
Positive reactions indicate agglutination (clumping) and incompatible blood type.
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