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CARBON STEEL

Carbon steel, also called plain-carbon steel is steel where the main

alloying constituent is carbon. The American Iron and Steel Institute

(AISI) defines carbon steel as: "Steel is considered to be carbon steel

when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium,

cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium

or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired

alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not

exceed 0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for

any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages

noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper0.60.

The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not

stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels.

As the carbon content rises, steel has the ability to become harderand stronger

through heat treating, but this also makes it less ductile. Regardless of the

heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon

steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.

Eighty-five percent of all steel used in the United States is carbon steel.

TYPES OF CARBON STEEL

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Carbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content

Mild and low carbon steel

Mild steel is the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low

while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many

applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15% carbon

and mild steel contains 0.160.29% carbon, therefore it is neither brittle

norductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap

and malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.

It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as

structural steel. The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3

(0.284 lb/in3

) and the Young's modulus is 210,000 MPa (30,000,000 psi).

Low carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two

yield points. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the

second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low

carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower

yield point then the surface may develop Lder bands.

HIGHER CARBON STEELS

Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon

content in the range of 0.301.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various

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otherelements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting

steel. Trace amounts ofsulfurin particular make the steel red-short. Low

alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and

melts around 1,4261,538 C (2,5992,800 F). Manganese is often added

to improve the hardenability of low carbon steels. These additions turn the

material into a low alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of

carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Approximately 0.300.59% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and

has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive

components.

HIGH CARBON STEEL

Approximately 0.60.99% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs and

high-strength wires.

Ultra-high carbon steel

Approximately 1.02.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great

hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives,

axles orpunches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content are

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made using powder metallurgy. Note that steel with a carbon content

above 2.0% is considered cast iron.

HEAT TREATMENT

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for

certain types of heat treatments.

MAIN ARTICLE: HEAT TREATMENT

The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties

of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance.

Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are slightly altered. As

with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's modulus is

unaffected. Steel has a higher solid solubility for carbon in the austenite

phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process

annealing, start by heating to an austenitic phase. The rate at which the

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steel is cooled through the eutectoid reaction affects the rate at which

carbon diffuses out of austenite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will

give a finerpearlite (until the martensite critical temperature is reached)

and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid

(less than 0.77 wt% C) steel results in a pearlitic structure with -ferrite at

the grain boundaries. If it is hypereutectoid (more than 0.77 wt% C) steel

then the structure is full pearlite with small grains ofcementite scattered

throughout. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever

rule. Here is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:

Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately

700 C for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but

the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled

process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite within

primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the

eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and

allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel.

The image to the right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs.[10]

Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 C above Ac3 or Ac1

for 1 hour; this assures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although

cementite might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the

eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 38 C

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(100 F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is

turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic

structure, which means the "bands" ofpearlite are thick. Fully-annealed

steel is soft and ductile, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary

for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more

ductile.[11]

Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon

steel with less than 0.3 wt% C. The steel is usually heated up to 550

650 C for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 C. The

image rightward shows the area where process annealing occurs.

Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated

above the upper critical temperature and this temperature is maintained for

a time and then the temperature is brought down below lower critical

temperature and is again maintained. Then finally it is cooled at room

temperature. This method rids any temperature gradient.

Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 C above Ac3 or Acm

for 1 hour; this assures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The

steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 C (68

F) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-

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uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed

steel; it has a relatively high strength and ductility.

Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing

temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to

the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the

carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content

increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that

possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered

cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered

tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is

extremely hard butbrittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These

internal stresses cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is

approximately three to four (with more carbon) fold harder than

normalized steel.[13]

Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering

procedure, hence the term "marquenching". It is a form of isothermal heat

treatment applied after an initial quench of typically in a molten salt bath at

a temperature right above the "martensite start temperature". At this

temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some

bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time

to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control

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the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the

ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this

solution until the inner and outer temperatures equalize. Then the steel is

cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not

only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also

increases the impact resistance.[14]

Quench and tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered,

because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature

and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to

a temperature below the eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated

temperature allows very small amounts of spheroidite to form, which

restores ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are

carefully chosen for each composition.[15]

Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except

the steel is held in the molten salt bath through the bainite transformation

temperatures, and then moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a

greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion. The

disadvantage of austempering is it can only be used on a few steels, and it

requires a special salt bath.[16]

CASE HARDENING

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Main article: Case hardening

Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a

hard, wear resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile

interior. Carbon steels are not very hardenable; therefore wide pieces

cannot be thru-hardened. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they

can through-harden and do not require case hardening. This property of

carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear

characteristics but leaves the core tough.

PROPERTIES OF CARBON STEEL

Steel is an alloy formed between the union of iron and smaller amounts of

carbon. Carbon seems to the most appropriate material for iron to bond with.

Carbon works as a strengthening instrument in steel; it further solidifies the

structures inherent in iron. By tinkering with the different amounts of carbon

present in the alloy, many variables can be adjusted such as density, hardness

and malleability. Increasing the level of carbon present will make the steel more

structurally delicate, but also harder at the same time.

Steel is more or less classified by its inherent carbon content. High-carbon steel

is traditionally used for fashioning cutting tools and dies because one of its

distinguishing features is great hardness. Steel with a lower to medium level of

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carbon will typically be reserved for metal sheeting for use in construction, due

to its increased hardness and malleability.

There are additional types of steel alloys which prominently feature carbon.

Alloy steels, are composed of iron, carbon and any additional element(s) that

grants the alloy specific qualities. They are:

Aluminum steel visually very striking and downy with a high tensile

strength.

Chromium steel Strong, dense and highly malleable; this alloy finds use

in automobile and airplane construction.

Nickel steel One of the most commonly used alloys; possesses no

magnetic properties and possesses the tensile strength of high-carbon

steel but lacking its frailty.

Nickel-chromium Used in constructing armor, a very shock resistant

alloy.

Stainless steel An English born alloy, it is extremely strong and

resistant to most scuffing, deterioration and oxidation.

There are additional alloys with even more interesting properties and uses out

there in circulation. It might be interesting to note that at least 85% of all the

steel used in the United States is in fact Carbon Steel; in other words, its

everywhere.

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THE METALLURGY OF CARBON STEEL

The best way to understand the metallurgy of carbon steel is to study

the Iron Carbon Diagram. The diagram shown below is based on the

transformation that occurs as a result of slow heating. Slow cooling

will reduce the transformation temperatures; for example: the A1 point

would be reduced from 723C to 690 C. However the fast heating and

cooling rates encountered in welding will have a significant influence

on these temperatures, making the accurate prediction of weld

metallurgy using this diagram difficult.

Austenite This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high

temperature. It has a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure

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which can contain up to 2% carbon in solution.

Ferrite This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C)

which can hold very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room

temperature. It can exist as either: alpha or delta ferrite.

Carbon A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into

clusters of iron atoms. It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to

harden by heat treatment. It also causes major problems for welding

, particularly if it exceeds 0.25% as it creates a hard microstructure

that is susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Carbon forms compounds

with other elements called carbides. Iron Carbide, Chrome Carbide

etc.

Cementite Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard

intermetallic compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the

remainder iron, its chemical symbol is Fe3C. Cementite is very

hard, but when mixed with soft ferrite layers its average hardness

is reduced considerably. Slow cooling gives course perlite; soft

easy to machine but poor toughness. Faster cooling gives very

fine layers of ferrite and cementite; harder and tougher

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Pearlite A mixture of alternate

strips of ferrite and cementite in a

single grain. The distance between

the plates and their thickness is

dependant on the cooling rate of the

material; fast cooling creates thin

plates that are close together and

slow cooling creates a much coarser

structure possessing less toughness.

The name for this structure is

derived from its mother of pearl

appearance under a microscope. A

fully pearlitic structure occurs at

0.8% Carbon. Further increases in

carbon will create cementite at the

grain boundaries, which will start to

weaken the steel.

Cooling of a steel below 0.8% carbon When a steel solidifies

it forms austenite. When the temperature falls below the A3

point, grains of ferrite start to form. As more grains of ferrite

start to form the remaining austenite becomes richer in carbon.

At about 723C the remaining austenite, which now contains

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0.8% carbon, changes to pearlite. The resulting structure is a

mixture consisting of white grains of ferrite mixed with darker

grains of pearlite. Heating is basically the same thing in reverse.

Martensite If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C

structure rapidly changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the

carbon to form pearlite. This results in a distorted structure that has

the appearance of fine needles. There is no partial transformation

associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesnt. However,

only the parts of a section that cool fast enough will form

martensite; in a thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and

if the shape is complex it may only form in small pockets. The

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hardness of martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is

normally very high, unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.

Tempering The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation

can be released by heating the steel below the A1 transformation

temperature. This release of carbon from nucleated areas allows the

structure to deform plastically and relive some of its internal

stresses. This reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also

tends to reduce tensile strength. The degree of tempering is

dependant on temperature and time; temperature having the greatest

influence.

Annealing This term is often used to define a heat treatment

process that produces some softening of the structure. True

annealing involves heating the steel to austenite and holding for

some time to create a stable structure. The steel is then cooled very

slowly to room temperature. This produces a very soft structure, but

also creates very large grains, which are seldom desirable because15

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of poor toughness.

Normalising Returns the structure back to normal. The steel is

heated until it just starts to form austenite; it is then cooled in air.

This moderately rapid transformation creates relatively fine grains

with uniform pearlite.

Welding If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted

against the carbon equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of

transformation and heat treatments will be observed.

Note, the carbon equilibrium diagram shown above is only for illustration, in

reality it will be heavily distorted because of the rapid heating and cooling

rates involved in the welding process.

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a)

b)

c)

d)

Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1,

therefore microstructure not significantly affected.

Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature

available to exceed the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains

transform to Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed grains

will be normalised.

Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation.

On cooling all grains will be normalised

Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to

grow. On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and

a course pearlite will form inside the grains. A course grain

structure is more readily hardened than a finer one, therefore if

the cooling rate between 800C to 500C is rapid, a hard

microstructure will be formed. This is why a brittle fracture is

most likely to propagate in this region.

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Welds The metallurgy of a weld is very

different from the parent material. Welding

filler metals are designed to create strong and

tough welds, they contain fine oxide particles

that permit the nucleation of fine grains.

When a weld solidifies, its grains grow from

the course HAZ grain structure, further

refinement takes place within these course

grains creating the typical acicular ferrite

formation shown opposite.

Recommended Reading

Metals and How To Weld Them :- Lincoln Arc Foundation

A very cheap hard backed book covering all the basic essentials

of welding metallurgy.

Welding Metallurgy Training Modules:- (Devised by The

Welding Institute of Canada) Published in the UK by Abington

Publishing. Not cheap but the information is clearly represented

in a very readable format.

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References

Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel, archived from the original on

2010-03-11, http://www.webcitation.org/5o9SDyEAb, retrieved 2010-03-

11.

^ Knowles, Peter Reginald (1987), Design of structural steelwork(2nd ed.),

Taylor & Francis, p. 1, ISBN9780903384599,

http://books.google.com/books?id=U6wX-3C8ygcC&pg=PA1.

^Engineering fundamentals page on low-carbon steel

^ Elert, Glenn,Density of Steel,

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/KarenSutherland.shtml, retrieved

2009-04-23 .

^ Modulus of Elasticity, Strength Properties of Metals - Iron and Steel,

http://www.engineersedge.com/manufacturing_spec/properties_of_metals_

strength.htm, retrieved 2009-04-23 .

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8/4/2019 Carbon Steel 2003 - 2007

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Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006), Foundations of Materials Science

and Engineering(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN0-07-295358-6.

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Categories: Steels | Metallurgical processes

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