CANADIAN PEAT HARVESTINGAND THE ENVIRONMENT

SECOND EDITION

ISSUES PAPER, No. 2001-1

PUBLISHED IN PARTNERSHIP WITH:

North American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee

CanadianSphagnumPeat Moss

Tourbe deSphaigneCanadienne

Printed 2001

Ottawa, Ontario

ISBN: 0-662-31256-2

Cat. No. CW69-10/2001-1E

First Edition published 1992. Second Edition 2001.

The Sustaining Wetlands Issues Paper Series is published by the Secretariat to the North

American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee. The Series is devoted to the publication of

reports concerning wetland management, policy and science issues of national interest in Canada.

The objective of the Series is to make Canadians more aware of the importance of the wise use

and conservation of wetland ecosystems and their natural resource values.

This paper was produced through the cooperation and funding of:

• Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association

• Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada

• North American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee

Copies of this report are available from:

Secretariat

North American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee

Suite 200, 1750 Courtwood Crescent

Ottawa, Ontario

K2C 2B5

or

Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association

7 Oasis Court

St. Albert, Alberta

T8N 6X2

Cover: Domed bog, Labrador. Photo: Doyle Wells

Également disponible en français sous le titre : L’extraction de la tourbe et l’environnement au

Canada. Deuxième Édition.

Cover printed on recycled paper (50% recycled fibre, 10% post-consumer waste)Interior pages printed on 100% recycled paper

Over 50% recycledpaper including 10%post-consumer fibre.

M – an official mark of Environment CanadaE

CANADIAN PEAT HARVESTINGAND THE ENVIRONMENT

SECOND EDITION

byJean-Yves Daigle

Hélène Gautreau-Daigle

First Edition byDavid Keys

Issues Paper, No. 2001 - 1

North American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee

Executive Summary .......................................................................................................iv

Prefaces ............................................................................................................................v

Canadian Peatland Facts and Harvesting Activities ................................................vi

1.0 Introduction ..............................................................................................................1

2.0 Canadian Wetlands .................................................................................................32.1 Wetland Development and Classification......................................................32.2 Distribution of Canadian Wetlands................................................................6

3.0 The Canadian Peat Industry ..................................................................................7

4.0 The Value of Wetlands in Our Environment ......................................................13

5.0 Environmental Impacts of Peat Harvesting ......................................................155.1 General Issues .............................................................................................15

Loss of Wetland Areas: Peat Harvesting in Perspective .......................15Effects on Large Wildlife .......................................................................17Effects on Small Wildlife.......................................................................18Effects on Vegetation ............................................................................19Effects on Greenhouse Gases ...............................................................20

5.2 Site-specific Issues .......................................................................................22Effects on Water Quality.......................................................................22

6.0 Peat Bog Restoration, Reclamation and Conservation ...................................236.1 Restoration Field Work ................................................................................256.2 Bois-des-Bel Restoration Project ..................................................................286.3 Other Research............................................................................................296.4 Application by the Canadian Peat Industry.................................................296.5 Status of Peatland Conservation in Canada.................................................29

7.0 Case Studies...........................................................................................................317.1 Miscouche Bog, Prince Edward Island ........................................................317.2 Barrington Bog, Nova Scotia........................................................................317.3 Bull Pasture Bog, New Brunswick ...............................................................327.4 Rural Development Plan for Lamèque and Miscou Islands,

New Brunswick...........................................................................................327.5 Guidelines for Peat Mining in New Brunswick...........................................337.6 Wetland Policy in Alberta.............................................................................337.7 Europe .........................................................................................................33

8.0 Summary.................................................................................................................34

9.0 References ..............................................................................................................35

Appendix CSPMA Preservation and Reclamation Policy........................................41

Table of Contents

or generations, growers and gar-deners everywhere have used peator peat moss for a variety of applica-tions. Since the 1940s the Canadian

peat harvesting industry has emerged as asignificant rural employer and user of peat-land resources.

Peat, mainly derived from Sphagnummoss, but also from reed and other sedgedeposits across the country, is marketed

among many uses as asoil supplement toenhance gardening andas a soil base for green-house production. It isone of nature’s trulygreen products offering

a large potential of horticulture uses and atthe same time can be disposed of withoutcausing any damage to the environment.Peat, in various sizes of compressed pack-ages and bales, has become a readily avail-able product at our local hardware andgarden centres.What would spring garden-ing be like without a few bales of peatmoss to dig into your flowerbeds or toplant with some new shrubs or roses?However, consumers of peat moss want toknow whether this important soil additiveis being harvested and applied in ways thatprotect the overall resource and the envi-ronment.

In 1999,1.2 million metric tonnes or about10 million cubic metres of peat were pro-duced in Canada.This volume of peat har-vested each year is small in comparison tothe estimated 70 million tonnes or more ofpeat that accumulates naturally each yearin Canada. On a volume basis, there are anestimated three trillion cubic metres ofpeat deposits in Canada. Peat is accumulat-ing nearly 60 times faster than the amountharvested. In 1999, this production was val-ued at approximately $170 million f.o.b.production site. Canadian Sphagnum peat,regarded as among the best quality peat inthe world, is sold to markets in the UnitedStates and Japan as well as across Canada.However, Canada has only a very smallshare of the world market accounting forapproximately eight percent of global peatmoss used.

The need to protect natural resources andto ensure wise, sustainable use of the envi-ronment is greater today than at any pointin our history. Like other natural resourcesectors, the harvesting of peat moss around

the World has attracted the interest of con-cerned environmental groups, govern-ments and the public.

In early 1991, the Canadian Sphagnum PeatMoss Association (CSPMA), the NewBrunswick Department of Natural Resourcesand Energy, and the Secretariat to theNorth American Wetlands ConservationCouncil (Canada), representing the com-bined interests of industry, governmentand researchers, initiated the production ofthe First Edition of this report. This SecondEdition updates the status of peat harvest-ing and environmental issues concerningthe use of peat and peat moss in Canada.

At present, less than 17,000 hectares ofCanada’s 113 million hectares of peatlandsare being used for peat or peat moss har-vesting. The majority of companiesinvolved in this industry, through theirassociation with the CSPMA, have articulat-ed a policy for the preservation of environ-mentally sensitive peatlands use and forsite restoration or reclamation of harvestedsites. The industry, in association with gov-ernment and non-government interests,environmental groups and universities, hasdeveloped a national peatland researchstrategy to promote awareness of peatlandrestoration technology and science. On-going research indicates that new andmany existing peatland development sitescan be revegetated successfully bySphagnum moss. Sphagnum moss is, withproper site management during and afteruse, the key peat-forming plant in Canadianpeatlands. The CSPMA Preservation andReclamation Policy urges peat producersto manage peatland after-use, includingrestoration of harvested bogs to a func-tioning peatland when harvesting is fin-ished (see policy in Appendix). Older sitescan also be reclaimed to valuable agricul-tural, forestry or wildlife habitat uses.

It is very evident that Canadian peat mossharvesting is not contributing to a declinein peatland functions or values on a nationalor regional scale in Canada. Site manage-ment issues are being successfully addressedby the industry and government regulators.There is room for further growth of theindustry in a co-operative, consultativemanner with regulators and environmentalinterests to ensure a balance between theneeds of the environment and sustainabledevelopment.

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ExecutiveSummary

iv

ment and intensive use on selected sitesmust be encouraged.”

So said my colleague Barry Warner of theUniversity of Waterloo in correspondenceabout this proposed paper when it wasbeing developed. Of course Barry is right.Unfortunately, Canadians are surprisinglyunaware of our peatlands and the opportu-nities Canada is blessed with in having somany peatlands present in this nation.

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n the decade since the First Edition,environmental issues have been atthe forefront of peatland manage-ment as well as a priority on the

Canadian peat industry’s agenda. Over thisperiod, the volume of harvested peatincreased by 45 percent while the harvest-ed peatland surface areas only increased by25 percent which is still less than 0.02 per-cent of the total peatland area in Canada.Furthermore,some 500 hectares of workedsurfaces are being restored.

This Second Edition has been revised andextended to include the collaborativeeffort between the North AmericanWetlands Conservation Council Committee,the federal and provincial governmentagencies and the peat industry (Canadian

Sphagnum Peat Moss Association). A newsection on peatland restoration was creat-ed to illustrate the dynamism in this field.The Canadian horticulture peatindustry has adopted PeatlandRestoration Guidelines that ithas shared with the interna-tional industrial community.

The common vision is wiseuse of this valuable naturalresource in Canada andaround the world while contributing in asignificant way to our economy.

Jean-Yves DaigleHélène Gautreau-Daigle

IPreface toSecond Edition

Hence, this paper is about peatlands inCanada. It addresses what they are, howour peatland resources are being used (inparticular for horticulturalpeat uses and for other peatmoss applications), and whatthe environmental issues arethat must be addressed byCanadians. The paper alsoexamines what is being doneto ensure the sustainable,wise use of our peatlands.

David Keys

Preface toFirst Edition

anadians need and will continueto need peat and peatlands. Wecannot and should not halt usealtogether, though wise manage-

“

vi

• Peatlands, covering approximately 113million hectares of Canada’s land andfreshwater area (over 11 percent of thesurface area of the nation), comprise 76percent of the 148 million hectares ofthe wetlands across Canada.

• The volume of peat on Canadian wet-lands is an estimated three trillion cubicmetres, a major portion of the globalpeat resource.

• Most peatlands occur in the boreal zoneof Canada and are generally unaffectedby agricultural,urban,ports/harbours andindustrial impacts.

• Only specific ranges of peatland formshave peat and/or peat moss which issuitable for use in horticultural and othercurrent applications.

• Peatlands support a complex mixture ofecological functions such as habitats forwildlife and other biological resourcesas well as social and cultural benefits.

• Horticultural peat and peat moss arevaluable, environmentally friendly prod-ucts used by millions of residents ofNorth America for gardening, green-house and a variety of other applica-tions. Peat moss has also entered theglobal marketplace in a range of uses,such as balneology, biofiltration tech-nologies and hydrocarbon sorbants.

• Over 70 million tonnes of peat are esti-mated to accumulate in the natural envi-ronment each year in Canada, whilecurrent applications utilize approxi-mately one million tonnes annually.

CANADIAN PEATLAND FACTS AND HARVESTING ACTIVITIES• Less than 0.02 percent (17,000 hectares)

of Canada’s peatland area is currentlybeing used for horticultural peat har-vesting and related applications.At pre-sent, no peat in Canada is used for fuelpurposes.

• Total revenues for horticultural peat in1999 were approximately CDN$ 170million and the industry provided employ-ment for thousands of residents in ruralareas of the nation.

• An integrated national inventory ofpeatland distribution and sites ofregional or national significance doesnot exist in Canada. However, detailedpeatland databases in portions ofCanada are now in place, notably partsof the Prairie Provinces, central andsouthern Ontario,southern Quebec, theIsland of Newfoundland and all threeMaritime Provinces.

• Several provinces have wetland conser-vation and management policies inplace: Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitobaand Ontario, while New Brunswick,Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Islandare at various stages of developing suchpolicies.Other provinces,such as BritishColumbia, Quebec and Newfoundlandare addressing wetland conservationthrough natural resources and wildlifeprograms.

1

here has been increased recogni-tion of the value of wetland eco-systems in recent years. Wetlandloss due to agriculture, urbaniza-

tion, industrial development, water man-agement projects and a variety of relatedactivities has made wetland conservationan issue in many jurisdictions.Modificationor loss of wetland ecosystems has beenextensive in much of southern Canada.Forexample, over 70 percent of the wetlandsin the southern portions of the centralPrairies, southern Ontario and the FraserLowland in British Columbia have beenconverted to other land uses. However,wetland disturbance has been minimal inlightly populated areas of Canada such asthe boreal zone.

Canada’s peat-dominated ecosystems are amajor component of the nation’s totalwetland resource base. In this paper, theterm “peatland”is used to refer to the peat-dominated areas within the total wetlandresource of Canada. Peatlandresources are utilized for manypurposes including agriculture,forestry, peat harvesting andwildlife habitat. Partially decom-posed peat suitable for horticul-tural applications and peat mossare harvested in several regionsof Canada. However, most of thewetlands in southern Canadathat the general population rec-ognize are not suitable for thispurpose. Thick accumulations ofsuitable quality peat, normallyfound only in certain categoriesof peatlands such as bogs and fens,are a basic requirement for peatharvesting interests.

The objective of this paper is to examinethe relationship between peatlands andthe horticultural peat industry. The studyprovides an evaluation of environmentaland sustainable wise use issues in aCanadian context, and provides an inter-national perspective where possible. Casestudies are used to examine several specificsituations where peatland developmentproposals have undergone environmentalassessments. The present statusof peatland conservation inCanada is reviewed and topicsrelating to sustainable develop-ment with respect to the hor-ticultural peat industry areexamined in greater detail. An appendixoutlining the Preservation and ReclamationPolicy of the Canadian Sphagnum PeatMoss Association is included.

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1.0 Introduction

Studying vegetation near a bog pool.

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ccording to The CanadianWetland Classification System,Second Edition (Warner andRubec 1997), the term “wet-

land” has a broad definition and is used todescribe areas that are waterlogged all ormost of the time. A “peatland” is a wetlandon which extensive organic material hasaccumulated. The European terms “mire”

and “moor” have related meanings.Accumulation of peat can occur when cli-matic and other physical conditions resultin a rate of production (growth) of plantmaterials such as mosses, reeds or sedgesthat exceeds the rate of decomposition.About 76 percent of the wetlands inCanada are classed as peatlands (seeTable 1). The volume of peat present inthese peatlands has been estimated by theNational Research Council to be overthree trillion cubic metres (Tarnocai 1984).

Wetlands are dynamic ecosystems thatcontinue to evolve and change over time.These are wetlands developed in Canadafollowing the most recent retreat of glacial

ice and are typically between 5,000 and10,000 years old. The rate at which wet-lands evolve is controlled by a complexinteraction of climatic, biological, hydro-logical and related factors.

2.1 Wetland Development andClassification Wetlands are subdivided into five “classes”:bog, fen, swamp, marsh and shallow openwater. Definitions of theseterms and methods for wet-land differentiation have beendeveloped for Canada by theNational Wetlands WorkingGroup (1986, 1988), Warnerand Rubec (1997). Each of the five classescan be further subdivided into various“forms” based on landscape, hydrologicaland other physical factors and “types”related to vegetation characteristics.

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Fen complex, Kejimkujik National Park,Nova Scotia.

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Forested swamp, Kejimkujik National Park, near Bridgewater,Nova Scotia.

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2.0 Canadian Wetlands

Figure 1. In the case of the fen, base cation-rich groundwater percolates through thesystem and influences the nature of thevegetation. In the bog illustration, a livingsurface layer (usually 10 to 20 cm thick) isunderlain by an accumulation of weaklydecomposed Sphagnum peat which formedin a bog environment, i.e. under ombro-trophic conditions. Underlying this is a layerof moderately decomposed Sphagnumpeat that accumulated in a fen environ-ment influenced by seepage of minero-trophic waters. The basal layer consists ofhighly decomposed sedge peats that accu-mulated in a fen and/or marsh environ-ment. An open water phase may have beenpresent in the centre of the basin duringthe early stages of peatland development.Reconstruction of the development histo-ry of a peatland can be achieved by an eval-uation of peat cores to determine thestratigraphy of the accumulated peat.

A detailed discussion of wetland classifica-tion is presented in Wetlands of Canada(National Wetlands Working Group 1988).A brief summary of the major wetland classesis presented below.

Bog An ombrotrophic peatland withthe water table at or near the sur-face. Bogs may be treed or tree-less. Vegetation species tend toshow a limited diversity due to theacid, nutrient-poor environmentwith Sphagnum mosses and erica-ceous shrubs common.

FenA minerotrophic peatland withthe water table usually at or justabove the surface.Vegetation mayinclude sedges,grasses,reeds,brownmosses,certain Sphagnum species,ericaceous shrubs and trees.

SwampA mineral wetland or peatlandwith standing or gently flowingwaters occurring in pools or chan-nels. The water table usually is ator near the surface. The vegetationis characterized by a dense coverof deciduous or coniferous treesor shrubs,herbs and some mosses.

4

In the initial stages of wetland develop-ment, where vegetation obtains its nutri-ents from soil and groundwater, a wetlandis termed “minerotrophic”.

Common vegetation types in the swamp,marsh and shallow water classes include avariety of reeds, sedges, shrubs and otherspecies. Because there is a nutrient-richenvironment,a diverse range of plant speciesis typical.

Accumulation of organic matter, in theform of peat, can occur under favourableconditions. The rate of accumulation canbe as much as one to two mm/year (10 to20 cm per century) but generally may aver-age from 0.6 to 0.7 mm/year in manyCanadian peatlands. A minimum accumula-tion of 40 cm of peat is used to define theterm peatland. As the peat layer accumu-lates, access to nutrients in the underlyingsoil is reduced and the vegetation mustobtain its requirements from groundwaterseepage. The type of vegetation and thediversity of species tend to reflect thischange in nutrient regime. Plants such asmosses (Sphagnum spp.) and sedges(Carex spp.) become common and theoverall diversity of species becomes lower.These conditions are frequently associatedwith the “fen” class of wetlands.

The accumulation of peat in bogs can resultin the surface of the wetland being raisedabove the surrounding waters and mineralsoil. The surface vegetation is then virtuallyunaffected by base cation-rich waters and itobtains nutrients primarily from precipita-tion. The wetland is termed “ombrotrophic”and includes species such as Sphagnummosses and shrubs. The diversity of speciestends to be low, presumably due to theacidic, low base cation environment. Suchconditions are typical of the “bog” class ofwetlands.

Many peatland forms commonly expand ina lateral direction as well as having verticalaccumulation. This process of “paludifica-tion” results in more land gradually becom-ing part of the peatland ecosystem. Naturalactivities such as beaver ponds can con-tribute to this process. Generalized cross-sections of a bog and fen are shown in

MarshA mineral wetland that is periodically inun-dated by standing or slowly movingwaters. Surface water levels may fluctuateseasonally and vary from fresh to highlysaline. Vegetation includes emergentsedges, grasses, rushes and reeds, whichmay have interspersed areas of open waterand aquatic plants.

Shallow Open WaterA mineral wetland that is intermit-tently or permanently flooded andhas open expanses of standing orflowing water. Shorelines, mudflats, shallow lakes, ponds, pools,oxbows, channels and similar fea-tures are included in this class.Vegetation,when present, consistsof submerged and floating aquaticplant forms.

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Bay marshes and estuary, Queen Charlotte Islands.

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Figure 1: Generalized illustrations of bog and fen showing differences in morphologicaldevelopment and sources of nutrient input.

Source adapted from: Wells and Hirvonen (1988)

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2.2 Distribution of Canadian WetlandsThe distribution of wetlands is controlledby many factors including surface hydrolo-gy and the interaction of climatic andtopographic factors. Table 1 lists Canada’swetland occurrence on a provincial basisand provides an overview of comparablepeatland distribution.Major wetland or peat-land inventory programs have been com-pleted in several regions of Canada includingthe Pacific estuaries, the southern Prairies,southern Ontario, southern and easternQuebec, and the Atlantic Provinces exclud-ing Labrador. Current summary informa-tion on the location of Canadian wetlandinventories can be found on the Internet(www. wetkit.net).

Climatic and topographic factors also influ-ence the type of wetland that occurs in aparticular region.Twenty wetland regions,and a series of wetland subregions basedupon climatic factors, are recognized inCanada (National Wetlands Working Group1986). A detailed discussion of wetland dis-tribution and of the characteristics of thewetlands in each wetland region is providedin Canada’s Wetlands (National WetlandsWorking Group 1986, Geomatics Canada

website:www.geomaticscanada.com).Figure 2illustrates the location of the four borealwetland regions (including High, Mid, Lowand Atlantic Boreal).These wetland regionshave cold winters but warm summers withamounts of precipitation moderate in thecentre of the continent to high in the mar-itime coastal areas. Over 70 percent ofCanada’s wetlands are estimated to occurwithin this zone where the dominant vege-tation consists of coniferous forest or variousproportions of coniferous and broad-leavedforest (La Roiet al.1967).Thema jo r i t y o fthese are bogand fen ecosys-tems, and mostof the peat har-vesting opera-tions are withinthese bound-aries.

Table 1OCCURRENCE OF WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS IN CANADA

Source: Rubec 2000, Tarnocai et al. 2000.

PROVINCE OR TERRITORY PEATLAND AREA TOTAL WETLAND AREA

ha × 106 % of area of ha × 106 % of area ofprovince or province or

territory territory

Alberta 18.0 27.2 23.3 35.2British Columbia 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.6Manitoba 19.2 29.5 23.3 35.9New Brunswick 0.2 4.4 0.3 5.6Newfoundland-Labrador 5.4 13.4 6.8 16.8Northwest Territories and 16.9 4.9 27.8 8.1NunavutNova Scotia 0.4 6.3 0.6 10.5Ontario 31.3 29.3 33.5 31.3Prince Edward Island <0.01 <1 0.07 <1Quebec 11.2 7.2 15.8 7.9Saskatchewan 4.9 7.5 9.7 14.8Yukon Territory 1.1 2.3 1.5 3.4Canada 113.4 11.4 147.9 14.4

River edge, fen, bog complex near Timmins, Ontario.

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n 1999, there were approximately 85operations in Canada that producedhorticultural peat. About 99 percentof the total national production

comes from the combined operations of15 corporate groups who currently formthe Canadian Sphagnum Peat MossAssociation (CSPMA). The locations of prin-cipal production sites are shown in Figure2. Some operations have been in produc-tion for over half a century. Peat produc-tion has occurred in each of the provincesat one time or another. At present, themajority of the operations are located insouthern and southeastern Quebec andeastern and northeastern New Brunswick.Peat production also occurs in westernCanada, in central Alberta, southernSaskatchewan, and eastern Manitoba aswell as in Nova Scotia, Prince EdwardIsland, Ontario and Newfoundland.Table 2provides a summary compiled by NaturalResources Canada of recent peat ship-ments by province.

Figure 2 shows that peat productionoccurs primarily in the boreal wetlandregions.Most of the operations are situatedin the Atlantic Boreal and the Low BorealWetland Regions. The bog class of wetland,which is characteristic of these wetlandregions, is also the focus of horticulturalpeat developments in Canada.This reflectsthe demands of the marketplace for highquality peat products.Canadian Sphagnumpeat in 1999 represented about99.9 percent of the volumeand about 99.3 percent of thedollar value of peat productsexported into the UnitedStates (Jasinski 1999).Figure 3shows that annual shipmentsof Canadian peat for 1994 to 1999 haveranged from 914,000 to 1,216,000 tonnes.

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3.0 The CanadianPeat Industry

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity ValueProvince (× 000 T) (× 000 $) (× 000 T) (× 000 $) (× 000 T) (× 000 $) (× 000 T) (× 000 $) (× 000 T) (× 000 $) (× 000 T) (× 000 $)

Newfoundland 4 779 × × 2 462 1 164 2 423 2 417Prince Edward – – 21 2 266 21 2 327 22 2 404 33 5 601 43 3 541IslandNova Scotia × × × × × × × × × × × ×New Brunswick 328 40 378 370 46 597 379 49 857 430 55 199 402 50 382 444 57 558Quebec 283 43 793 274 48 012 259 40 130 286 37 644 324 41 016 372 49 864Ontario × × × × × × × × × × × ×Manitoba × × × × × × × × × × × ×Saskatchewan × × × × × × × × × × × ×Alberta × × 110 23 840 125 23 770 149 26 636 216 41 449 178 26 511British × × – – – – – – – – – –Columbia

Total 914 133 345 886 139 154 901 141 019 1 054 146 404 1 125 166 542 1 216 168 767

Table 2CANADIAN PEAT SHIPMENTS BY PROVINCE, 1994–1999

– nil× values not released due to confidentialityValues are sales, f.o.b. works, less the cost of containersSource: Bergeron, 1996 (for 1994-1995); Paquette and Gauthier 1999 (for 1996-1998), 2000 (for 1999)

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ALBERTA:1 Athabasca 2 Newbrook3 Seba Beach4 Vilna5 Wandering River

SASKATCHEWAN:6 Carrot River

MANITOBA:7 Caribou8 Elma9 Giroux

10 Julius

ONTARIO:11 Alfred12 Fort Frances

QUEBEC:Communities grouped accordingto Regional County Municipalities(RCM) 13 Lac St-Jean Est and

Saguenay • St-Ludger-de-Milot• L’Ascension• La Baie

14 Portneuf• Grondines

15 Charlevoix• La Baleine (2)

16 La Haute Côte-Nord• Escoumins• St-Paul-du-Nord

17 Manicouagan• Pointe-Lebel

18 Sept-Rivières• Port-Cartier• Sept-ÎIes (2)

19 Coaticook / Drummond • Coaticook• St-Bonaventure

20 Desjardins / Bellechasse • St-Charles• St-Henri

21 Kamouraska• St-Alexandre (4)• Rivière Ouelle• St-André

22 Rivière-du-Loup• L’Isle-Verte (2)• Rivière-du-Loup (4)• St-Arsène (2)• St-Modeste (3)

23 Les Basques / Rimouski–Neigette• Ste-Anne-de-la-Pointe-au-

Père• St-Eugène-de-l’Adrière (2)• St-Fabien (5) • St-Simon

24 Matane• St-Ulric-de-Matane (2)

NEW BRUNSWICK:25 Acadian Peninsula

• Burnt Church• Grande-Anse• Inkerman (3)• Lamèque Island (7)• Maisonnette• Pokesudie• Rivière-du-Portage• Tabusintac• Tracadie

26 Escuminac Peninsula /Miramichi• Baie-Ste-Anne• Baie du Vin• Black Brook• Escuminac• Eel River Bridge• Pointe-Sapin• Rogersville• St-Margarets

27 Southeast New Brunswick• Birch Ridge• Rexton• Shediac

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND:28 Ellerslie (2)29 Foxley River30 Miscouche

NOVA SCOTIA:31 Berwick32 Kennetcook33 Saulnierville

NEWFOUNDLAND:34 Bishops Falls

Source: Updated from Ecoregions Working Group 1989.

The number of operations are indicated between parentheses whenthere are more than one.

Figure 2. Communities in Canada that are the Focus ofPeat Harvesting Operations and Employment

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(Shaded area depicts Boreal Wetland Regions of Canada.)

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2528, 29, 30

ment. An area of 50 hectares is usuallyrequired, although smaller sites areoccasionally developed.

• the peatland must have a good potentialfor development of enhanced drainage.

• proximity to a transportation infra-structure (highways,truck availability),alow density of tree cover, availability of alabour force,access to electrical power,and similar factors are preferable.

• climatic factors must be suitable fordrying of the peat layer during the har-vesting period, such as there beingappropriate periods of consecutivedays without rainfall.

Once a peatland has been selected fordevelopment, surveying is carried out anda drainage plan is prepared. The high waterholding capacity of the peat layer necessi-tates the use of closely spaced ditches. A30 m ditch spacing is common. The surfacevegetation is removed following the com-pletion of the ditching. The deposit is thenready for peat production.

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A weakly decomposed peat composedmainly of Sphagnum mosses is the pre-ferred product for a horticultural peatoperation. This peat type is found inregions where the appropriate combina-tions of climatic and topographic factorshave resulted in the development of bogsand fens. Thick layers of weakly decom-posed Sphagnum peat can accumulatewhen the right combinations of factorsexist. However, even when peat quality isacceptable, several other criteria must bemet for a peat deposit to be suitable forproduction. There are many basic consider-ations in the selection of a peatland forproduction of horticultural peat:

• peat quality must meet market require-ments.

• the thickness of the high quality peatlayer must be sufficient to warrantdevelopment. An average depth of twometres is generally considered to be aminimum.

• the areal extent of the peatland shouldbe large enough to warrant develop-

Figure 3: Canadian Peat Shipments, 1994-1999

Sources: Bergeron (1996) (for 1995); Paquette and Gauthier (1999) (for 1996-1998); andPaquette and Gauthier (2000) (for 1999)

Production requires the use of the sun andwind to dry the surface peat layer. Anuppermost layer is usually harrowed,breaking capillary flow and enhancing thedrying process.Technically this process iscalled “milling”the peat. After one to threedays, the dry peat layer is then collectedusing large vacuum harvesters or otherequipment. The peat is transported to aprocessing facility for screening and pack-aging. The main peat production season inCanada is the late May to mid-Septemberperiod. Productioncan be severely in-hibited by abnor-mally wet springor summer weath-er resulting in sig-nificant variationin annual produc-tion (as can be seenin Table 2).

Most of the peatthat is producedis sold in com-pressed bales foruse in the horti-cultural and nurs-ery industries andfor domestic (house-hold) consumption.Some peat is usedfor the production of soil mixes by addingnutrients and other materials. Peat is alsoused for compressed peat pots, in biofil-tration technologies and as hydrocarbonsorbants.

In 1999, peat shipments in Canada werevalued at almost $170 million (Paquetteand Gauthier 2000). The industry employsthe majority of its workers on a seasonalbasis and provides the equivalent of 1,400to 1,600 person-years of direct employ-ment annually. Due to the seasonal natureof employment, the actual number ofemployees could be tripled. It is also esti-mated that several thousand additionaljobs in Canada and the United States arerelated to the shipping, trucking and han-

dling of these peat products. In manyregions, such as rural Alberta, Quebec orNew Brunswick, the peat industry is animportant employer.

On an international basis, an InternationalPeat Society (IPS) survey done in 1999 indi-cated that Canada ranked second in theglobal production of horticultural peat,after Germany (Table 3). In 1997, total pro-duction of peat for horticultural, fuel andother purposes was about 93.7 millioncubic metres,of which 65 percent was des-ignated for fuel uses. Ten percent of totalglobal peat production occurs in NorthAmerica. Canada currently accounts forabout 75 percent of this production withabout 7.3 million cubic metres of peat har-vested (Hood and Sopo 1999). Canada pro-duces approximately 22 percent of theworld’s horticultural peat,making it first or

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Peat pots produced by Jiffy Company.

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ket. Peat produced in Canada is graduallycapturing an increased market share in theUnited States. In 1987, imports fromCanada represented 35 percent of con-sumption. This had risen to 44 percent by1990 and to 54 percent by 1998 (Cantrell1990, United States Department of theInterior 1991, Jasinski 1999). Peat pro-duced in the United States is generallyclassed as reed-sedge or Hypnum peatwhereas the imports from Canada typicallyare a weakly decomposed Sphagnum peat,which has a higher market value pertonne.

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second among nations, depending uponGermany’s production in a given year. Ofthe 13 nations in this survey five includingCanada did not use peat as an energysource in 1997.

Canadian production has undergone asteady growth over the past decade. TheUnited States continues to represent 85 to90 percent of the export market for peatproduced in Canada, while Japan con-sumes up to about 10 percent of Canadianexports with the remainder being sold to avariety of other markets. About 10 percentof the total Canadian production of horti-cultural peat is sold on the domestic mar-

Table 3PEAT PRODUCTION BY COUNTRY IN 1997

Source: Hood and Sopo (1999)

COUNTRYENERGY USE HORTICULTURE USE

(× 000 cubic metres)

Belarus 7 848 272Canada 0 7 250Estonia 1 367 3 497Finland 30 120 1 626

Germany 0 9 000Ireland 8 400 1 616Norway 0 140Poland 0 680Russia 8 680 2 540

Sweden 3 381 1 203Ukraine 1 225 85

United Kingdom 40 2 500United States 0 2 201

Total 61 061 32 610

etlands are defined as:“landthat is saturated with waterlong enough to promotewetland or aquatic process-

es as indicated by poorly drained soils,hydrophytic vegetation and various kindsof biological activity which are adapted toa wet environment.Wetlands include bogs,fens, marshes, swamps and shallow water”(Warner and Rubec 1997).

Wetlands have played a crucial role inhuman history. Major stages in the evolu-tion of life itself probably took place innutrient rich coastal waters. Some of thefirst coastal Indian communities in NorthAmerica depended on wetlands for foodand materials for building, shelter andclothing.

The dependence is now less direct.However, two thirds of the fish we eatdepends on wetlands at some stage in theirlife cycle. Wetlands perform a wide range offunctions that are essential for supportingplant and animal life and maintaining thequality of the environment. In additionthey offer numerous opportunities forrecreational, cultural and aesthetic as well

as commercial activities. People areincreasingly aware of the serious conse-quences of wetland transformation and thepotential losses not only for wildlife, butalso for the well-being of human commu-nities.

Wetlands exhibit enormous diversityaccording to their genesis, geographicallocation, water regime and chemistry, dom-inant plants, and soil or sedi-ment characteristics. Thedynamics of water supply andloss are fundamental to thedevelopment, maintenanceand functioning of wetlands.Hydrology in turn influencesthe physical and chemicalcharacteristics of the wetlandwhich have major implica-tions for both flora and fauna as well as forecosystem dynamics (Maltby 1991).

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4.0 The Value ofWetlands in OurEnvironment

Estuarine marsh, Queen Charlotte Islands.

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evelopment of peatlands forhorticultural peat productioninvolves several environmentalissues of a general nature as

well as more site-specific concerns.Generalissues include conservation of wetlandfunctions and provision of wildlife habitat.These also involve a site-specific compo-nent, but this is better evaluated in aregional context.Other factors such as pro-tection of rare or unusual species andrelease of stored carbon in relation to globalwarming should also be evaluated as a site-specific concern within a regional or globalframework.

Site-specific issues relating to individualpeatland developments include a variety ofmanagement considerations. Water qualityaspects such as suspended solid dischargeand changes in water chemistry, as well aswater quantity factors such as runoff ratesand flow attenuation also must be consid-ered. Air quality considerations (i.e. dustcontrol), and reclamation/restoration issuesalso are of a more site-specific nature.

5.1 General Issues

Loss of Wetland Areas: PeatHarvesting in Perspective

Conservation of wetlands for their wildlifehabitat and other ecological values is animportant issue. Overall, development hasaccounted for a loss of 15 percent of Canadian

wetlands (Figure 4). More importantly, wet-land loss has become acute in someregions of Canada and is a public concern.A diverse range of development factors hasresulted in this loss of wetlands. Figure 4portrays data showing that agriculture,urbanization, and industrial developmentsincluding port and harbour projects, havebeen the cause of the majority of the wet-land loss in Canada since the nation wassettled. Agricultural development, particu-larly in the Prairie regions ofCanada, is the single greatestcause of wetland loss in Canada.In perspective, peat harvest-ing has affected only a rela-tively small percentage (0.02percent) of wetlands relativeto other uses (Rubec 1996).

Unlike most other developments, peat har-vesting does not usually result in an irre-trievable loss of wetlands. Peat harvestingactivities maintain most functions of a wet-land while in use,and,can be restored afteruse is complete as described in the PeatBog Restoration,Reclamation and Conservationsection.

Wetland loss due to urban, industrial andagricultural development has been greatestin the marsh, swamp and shallow waterclasses with only a relatively low percent-age of bogs and fens affected by these fac-tors. This is because the bog and fen wetlandclasses are less common in areas of Canada

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5.0 EnvironmentalImpacts of PeatHarvesting

Figure 4: Land Use Impacts on Canadian Wetlands since SettlementSource: Rubec 1996

Wetlands State

3.9%

Marsh and Bradford Marsh in southernOntario,and similar areas in British Columbia,southern Quebec, Newfoundland, NewBrunswick and other regions, are used forvegetable and small fruit production, pas-tureland and related purposes. Rubec et al.(1988) and Rubec and Thibault (1998)have estimated the value of market garden-ing crops derived from peatlands exceeds$100 million annually in Canada. Canada’swetlands are further estimated to providein excess of $12 billion in economic bene-fits to Canadians each year.

Peatland forestry is another non-harvestinguse. About 25,000 hectares of Canadianpeatlands are now partially drained to facil-itate forest operations. However, most ofthe harvesting of timber from Canada’slarge expanse of forested peatlands is car-ried out in winter during frozen groundconditions, minimizing site impacts andfacilitating use of appropriate machinery.Peatland drainage is used to enhance treegrowth in several European countries, butthis is not widely practised in Canada atpresent. Peatland forestry developments inAlberta, northern Ontario, eastern Quebec

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where settlement and development haveoccurred. Horticultural peat develop-ments, however, tend to mainly affect thebog wetland class and have minimal rela-tionships with other wetland classes suchas marshes and swamps. As previously dis-cussed, horticultural peat developmentsare primarily found on bogs within theboreal wetland regions. Due to the geo-graphic location of these regions, many ofthe conservation issues of greatest con-cern, i.e. agricultural drainage or infilling,urbanization, and industrial development,have relatively little relationship to the hor-ticultural peat industry. The peat industry,due to its concentration in certain geograph-ic areas of the nation such as the PrairieProvinces, northeastern New Brunswickand southeastern Quebec, is focusing itsattention on the effects of peat harvestingin these areas.

The environmental impacts of peatlanddevelopment are increasingly being docu-mented. Osborne (1982) discusses poten-tial impacts and presents a set of assessmentguidelines developed by Environment Canadafor peatland developments. A study by Clarke-Whistler et al. (1984) provides a summaryof the technical literature on the topic.This study was based on the premise thatan understanding of the structure andfunctions of the peatland ecosystem wasneeded to evaluate the significance ofpotential environmental impacts. Thereport provides considerable detail on thephysical and biochemical properties ofpeat. The study concluded that potentialaquatic impacts arising from peatlanddevelopment relate to alteration of thehydrological regime and impairment ofwater quality, with subsequent direct orindirect effects on aquatic biota.The studyproposed a modelling method for the pre-diction of impacts.

Wetlands and peatlands can be utilized fora variety of purposes, but these typicallyrequire the alteration of their natural state.Some utilization involves the removal ofthe peat layer whereas other uses do notactually remove the peat. Agricultural useof peatlands is one type of non-harvestinguse. Developments such as the Holland

Vegetable production on peatland nearBrandon, Manitoba.

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and Newfoundland are being used to eval-uate peatland drainage as a forest manage-ment tool in Canadian conditions.

Another non-harvesting use of wetlandsand peatlands is the use of water controlstructures and other methods to enhancewetlands as waterfowl and wildlife habitat.This is extensively practised in severalregions of the country. Ducks UnlimitedCanada (2000), for instance, on their inter-net site notes that they currently manageover 5,000 wetland sites in co-operationwith landowners and other governmentand non-government partners to enhancewaterfowl and wetland values. Wetlandenhancement and development are widelyaccepted as key elements in national andinternational programs to conserve and/orre-establish migratory waterfowl popula-tions. One of the world’s most successfulexamples of sustainable development inaction is the North American WaterfowlManagement Plan.By the end of 2000,over750,000 hectares of wetland and uplandhabitats were secured or enhanced underthis international plan and an additionaltwo million hectares had their use modi-fied to support the objectives of the Plan.(Environment Canada 2001).

On a global scale,development of peatlandfor the purpose of peat harvesting can bedivided into two main categories: (i) fuelpeat use, and (ii) horticultural peat andother peat moss applications (see Table 3).The use of peat as a fuel source is extensivein several European countries includingFinland, Ireland and the Community ofIndependent States (CIS-former SovietUnion). There was considerable interest infuel peat development in Canada duringthe mid-1970s, the early 1980s and theearly 1990s, but actual production for thispurpose has been minimal. To date,econom-ic factors and the availability of other energysources has not resulted in peat becomingan attractive energy product in Canada.Production of peat for horticultural and othernon-fuel purposes,however,has been under-taken in several regions of Canada.

Effects on Large Wildlife

Loss of wildlife habitat, particularly water-fowl nesting areas, is a wetland issue ofnational and international concern. Theswamp, marsh and shallow water wetlandclasses are favoured habitat for most water-fowl and a wide range of other wildlifespecies due to the diverse range of vegeta-tion and the common occurrence of openwater. In contrast,bogs tend to have a min-

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Wetland enhancement project near Minnedosa, Manitoba.

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ference was noted between the natural anddeveloped areas.Overall,wildlife use of thebogs was found to be low, probably due tothe low vegetation productivity of the boghabitat. A related investigation of moosepopulations (Gautreau-Daigle 1990) indi-cated some usage occurred but a differ-ence in population or activities was notobserved between developed and undevel-oped bogs. Black Duck (Anas rubripes), atarget species for population recovery ofthe North American Waterfowl ManagementPlan, often use peat harvesting ponds ashabitat in Eastern Canada.

In order to evaluate the potential of bogecosystems to recover following peat har-vesting, bird species diversity, abundance,and assemblages and vegetation were stud-ied over naturally revegetated and undis-turbed bog sites in several areas of theprovince of Quebec (Desrochers et al. 1998).Abandoned sites, especially post-vacuum-harvested areas, were less vegetated evenafter 20 years. Bird species richness andabundance were similar in natural and nat-urally revegetated block-cut sites and bothwere higher than in post-vacuum-harvestedsites. Ten of the 28 species studied in detailresponded to site perturbation, the PalmWarbler (Drendroica palmarum) being mostclosely associated with natural sites. Thestudy suggests that bog habitat restorationshould be accompanied by a preservation“safety net” area to counteract the lastingeffect of vacuum peat harvesting on birdspecies assemblages.

Effects on Small Wildlife

Peatlands are also recognized as rich refugiafor a wide range of other biological resourcesincluding invertebrate species. For exam-ple, the Biological Survey of Canada of theNational Museums has organized a nationalpeatland entomology project. This projectis leading to a better understanding of thedistribution and composition of the biodi-versity of peatlands beyond our more obvi-ous plants, animals or birds. Some of thespecies now being found in Canadian peat-lands are new to science.The Wagner Bogin Alberta is one site where focused bio-logical research is ongoing.

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imum of open water, low diversity of vege-tation and limited cover for waterfowl orother bird nesting purposes. The numberof waterfowl and wildlife species and thetotal wildlife populations in bogs are gen-erally lower in comparison to other wet-land classes or to mineral soil ecosystems.

Many species of small mammals, such asmuskrat and beaver,and game species suchas caribou,moose and deer utilize peatlandhabitat. Other species use peatlands on aseasonal basis (IEC Beak Consultants 1983).Rare or endangered bird and mammalspecies that are known to utilize peatlandsinclude Whooping Crane (Grus ameri-cana), Trumpeter Swan (Cygnus buccina-tor), Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus)and the wood bison (Bison bison athabas-cae). Over 120 species that are wetlanddependent are listed as species at risk bythe Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada (COSEWIC).

Gautreau-Daigle (1990) evaluated naturalpeatlands (domed bogs) and peat harvest-ing areas in close proximity to each otherin New Brunswick. Some use of bog pondsby waterfowl was observed but usageseemed to be primarily for staging andmigration with only limited brood-rearing.Usage appeared to be directly proportionalto the availability of open water. Little dif-

Moose (Alces alces) standing in a bog in NewBrunswick.

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Brodeur (1996) investigated the relativeabundance of selected groups of arthro-pods: ants, spiders and ground beetles inQuebec,and found that spiders and groundbeetles were more abundant in developedbogs, while diversity in species and num-bers of ants were larger in natural bogs.The arthropods chosen for the study havebeen found to be good indicator species forthe characterization of different bog types.

Mazerolle (1999) investigated amphib-ian populations in bog natural andedge habitats of active harvesting sitesin southeastern New Brunswick.Resultsindicate that species diversity andamphibian abundance are greater innatural sites. Peat harvesting activitieswere found to influence amphibiancommunities. However, local vegeta-tion and landscape features such asponds were also important. Greenfrogs (Rana clamitans) were particu-larly sensitive to nearby harvestingactivities. This ongoing research isexpected to evaluate the overall impacton amphibian populations.

Effects on Vegetation

Vegetation conservation, especiallythe protection of rare or endangeredspecies, is also an issue relating topeatland utilization. The compositionof the vegetation community is largelya function of wetland class, in combi-

nation with factors such as climate andtopography. The vegetation community,which occurs on a typical peatland bog,includes several species that are not com-mon in mineral soil ecosystems. For exam-ple, pitcher plants (Sarracenia spp.),bladderworts (Utricularia spp.) and sun-dews (Drosera spp.), which can all cap-ture insects to provide nutrients areconsidered unusual and unique in some

areas (Warner 1992).The abil-ity of unusual flora, such asthe pitcher plant, to obtainnutrients from sources otherthan groundwater enablesthem to survive in theombrotrophic and acid con-ditions that are found onbogs. They occupy an eco-logical niche that few otherspecies are suited to and canbe found on many bogecosystems. Many of thesespecies, however, are widelydistributed throughoutCanada’s boreal wetlandregions. The pitcher plantfor example, while theprovincial flower for theProvince of Newfoundlandand Labrador, is found acrossthe entire boreal zone ofCanada.

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Green frog (Rana clamitans) in pool on Burnt Church Bogin New Brunswick.

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Pitcher plant (Sarracenia spp.), in Newfoundland.

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in a peatland is a function of the anaerobicenvironment, i.e. lack of oxygen due to ahigh water table. Draining of the peatlandlowers the water table and accelerates thedecomposition process. As a result, car-bon,which is stored in the peat, is releasedto the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.Release of carbon gases to the atmos-phere, which is primarily due to the com-bustion of fossil fuels (including coal,wood, peat and petroleum products), hasbeen related to global warming (the“greenhouse” effect). In addition to com-bustion of fossil fuels, other sources of car-bon also contribute to this process(Figure 5).These include the loss of peat-land vegetation as a net carbon accumula-tor through photosynthesis as well as therole of peatland waters in the carboncycle.

Gorham (1991) assessed the impact ofpeatland development on the carboncycle.The study indicates that, on a globalbasis, combustion of peat as a fuel releasesabout three times the quantity of carbon as

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Rare orchids (Orchidaceae) capture theeye in their occurrences in peatlandsacross the nation. Outside Edmonton,Alberta in the Wagner Bog Natural Area, 16species of provincially or nationally rareorchids have been identified (Thormin1982). Much work needs to be done todocument the richness and variety of rareand endangered flora in our nation’s peat-lands. Presently, vegetation surveys, whichalso document the presence or absence ofrare plants, are carried out during thecourse of environmental assessments,which are a prerequisite to bog develop-ment approval.

The vegetation types found on bogs tendto have fairly typical association of individ-ual species which are well adapted to theconditions present on bogs. Some species,such as black spruce (Picea mariana),can tolerate a wide range ofconditions and also can befound in non-wetland envi-ronments. Other species cantolerate a relatively narrowrange of conditions and arenot typically found outside abog environment.While theuse of a particular peatlandcan result in the loss of localhabitat for certain speciesthat occupy a narrow ecolog-ical range, the relative impactthat results can also be con-sidered within a regionalcontext rather than just asite-specific basis. Modifica-tions made to the onlyremaining bog in a particu-lar region must be vieweddifferently than the use of abog in a region where themajority of the wetlands areof the bog class and repre-sentative and/or unique bogecosystems have been ear-marked or are secured forconservation objectives.

Effects on Greenhouse Gases

Carbon gases released due to peatlanddevelopment is another environmentalissue of concern. The accumulation of peat

Figure 5: Greenhouse Gases Emissions by Sector inCanada

Source: Neitzert et al. 1999

is released from drained peatlands.Drainedpeatlands for fuel peat production repre-sent a large percentage of the total area ofdeveloped peatlands on a global basis. Thestudy also noted that the release ofmethane from undrained peatlands has agreater impact than the combined totalimpact from areas used for peat combus-tion and other drainage.The current levelof development of peatlands in Canada, forhorticultural peat production or otherapplications,does not appear to impact sig-nificantly on the National greenhousegases emissions.

Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory (Neitzertet al.1999) estimates at 0.05MT CO2 eq theamount of greenhouse gases (GHG) con-tributed by the organic soils in Canada.Thiswould represent less than 0.001% of thetotal Canadian GHG emission (682 Mt CO2eq) in 1997. Because peatland extraction isactive on less than 0.02% of organic soils,the GHG contribution related to this indus-trial activity would be less than 0.0000002%(or 2 × 10–7 %).

However, the picture is much more com-plex and greenhouse gas emissions remaina very active issue.During the past decade,carbon cycling has received increasedattention from the scientific community.Studies are focused on quantifying fluxesin natural and drained peatlands to gain abetter understanding of the global impactson the environment as predicted climatechanges occur. Studies by Waddington andRoulet (1996) indicate there is a significantvariation in carbon fluxes within eachpeatland as well as between peatlands.Results of studies by Roulet et al. (1993)and Waddington et al. (1998) provide aninsight on how fluxes might change withvariation in water table positions and peattemperature. For example, if future climat-ic conditions lead to warmer, wetter peat-lands, methane emission should increaseand carbon dioxide fixation should decrease.

At a joint meeting of the International PeatSociety (IPS) and International Mire Conserva-tion Group (IMCG) in November, 1999, theclimate change issue, including carbonsinks and sources in peatlands, was recog-

nized as a rapidly emerging theme of sig-nificant importance to all organizationsinvolved in peatlands. Taking an activepart in this meeting, the CSPMA and theCanadian research community are keep-ing well informed on developments inthis area in order to be proactive with theCanadian peat industry. Under existingterms of the Kyoto Protocol on ClimateChange, Canada must reduce its green-house gas emissions by 20 percent by theyear 2012. To meet this objective, industrywill be required to play a significant rolein reducing its emissions and the peatindustry will not be exempt from thisexercise.

The total volume of horticultural peat pro-duced in Canada in 1999 was approxi-mately 1.2 million tonnes and was comprisedof about 50 percent water and 50 percentdry peat (i.e. the quantity of bone dry peatwas about 608,000 tonnes). In comparison,the mean annual rate of accumulation ofdry peat and organic matter in boreal peat-lands over the past 1,500 years, after com-paction and losses by decomposition arefigured in, was about 0.1 kg per squaremetre per year (Zoltai 1991) or about 1tonne per hectare. While accumulationrates are lower in many northern peat-lands, the total annual accumulation on the113 million hectares of peatland in Canadastill is substantially greater than the annualquantity of peat and peat moss harvested.If an average estimated peat accumulationfigure of only 0.5 tonne per hectare peryear can be assumed to be reasonable, thetotal peat volume accumulation in the nat-ural environment in Canada would exceed70 million tonnes each year. Peat is accu-mulating nearly 60 times faster than theamount harvested and will continue to bean important carbon sink. Furthermore,peatlands used for forestry applicationsenhance green growth,thus promoting car-bon storage in standing forests, an experi-ence well documented in countries such asFinland.The majority of tree stock in NorthAmerica matured in greenhouses use “peatplugs” as a rooting soil base.Thus, millionsof trees planted each year are dependenton this unique peat product.

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Chemical parameters, such as pH and arange of elements, are also a considerationin the operation of a peatland. These fac-tors receive less emphasis because naturaldrainage waters from bogs tend to alreadyhave a low pH. Dilution of drainage watersby receiving bodies minimizes the impactof these factors but short-term anomalousconcentrations could occur during the ini-tial development of drainage systemswhen large quantities of water are beingreleased. Responsible, environmentallysensitive management of such sites in thedevelopment phase is required.

The amount of water discharged from adeveloped peatland relative to the amountdischarged from a natural peatland has beena subject of sustained interest. The establish-ment of an extensive network of drainageditches enhances the opportunity for pre-cipitation to be transported off a peatland.This would be expected to result in a quick-er rate of runoff in mineral soils but does notappear to be the case with peatlands. Thereduced water level in the peatland, whichresults from the introduction of a drainagesystem, allows greater storage of water fol-lowing a precipitation event. As a result,runoff peaks tend to be of a lower magni-tude from developed peatlands rather thanfrom natural, undisturbed peatlands. Thewater stored in the peat layer tends to dis-charge over a period of several days.Studies of peatland hydrology have beenconducted in New Brunswick (Gemtec1991, 1993, 1994) and Newfoundland(Northland Associates 1989).

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5.2 Site-specific Issues Site-specific issues relating to peat-land development include a rangeof water management considera-tions, which result from the devel-opment of a drainage system on thepeatland. Water quality factorsincluding suspended solids and var-ious chemical parameters are animportant concern. The impact onthe water flow regime must also beconsidered including the runoffrate, attenuation of peak flows,groundwater recharge, and severalrelated parameters. Air quality,due towind erosion of production areasand stockpiles, is also a site-specific con-cern for horticultural peat developments.Reclamation and restoration of peatlandsat the conclusion of harvesting is anotherissue that is receiving increased attention.

Effects on Water Quality

The potential effect on downstream aquat-ic ecosystems of drainage water fromdeveloped peatlands is a significant envi-ronmental issue that has received consid-erable research interest. Several studies(Carpenter and Farmer 1981; MonencoMaritimes 1986; Shotyk 1986; Washburnand Gillis 1982; Klove 1997, 1998, 2000)have compiled data on this topic. Much ofthe work was oriented toward fuel peatdevelopments but is generally applicableto horticultural operations. Both the phys-ical and chemical quality of the watermust be considered.

Physical parameters such as suspendedsolids are a concern for a horticulturalpeat development. Preparation and opera-tion of a bog results in the removal of sur-face vegetation.The exposed peat particlescan be transported into the drainage sys-tem and leave the peatland site. In mostprovinces, the installation of sedimenta-tion ponds is now mandatory wheredrainage waters flow into a receiving bodyof water as means of controlling this situa-tion. Design of the ponds must incorpo-rate sufficient residence time to permitsettling of solids during periods of peakrainfall (Gemtec 1993).

Settling pond designed by Peat Research and DevelopmentCentre.

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ccording to industry sources,peat and/or peat moss harvest-ing has ceased on only about2,300 hectares of peatland in

Canada as yet (CSPMA 1999). However, theconcepts of reclamation and restorationhave become peatland management priori-ties in this nation. Reclamation is focusedon the after-use of harvested peatland sites.Restoration implies reestablishment of thesite as a peatland functioning ecosystemwith characteristics as close as possible toa range of conditions found in surroundingnatural peatlands.

Reclamation requirements for peatlanddevelopments in Canada have not beenclearly defined. With few peatlands at theend of the production life, Canadian indus-try has little direct experience in this field.In countries such as Finland, Ireland andGermany,peatland reclamation has receivedsignificantly greater attention.This reflectstheir long history of peatland use and themore frequent occurrence of peat depositswhere the reserves have been exhausted.Reviews of the literature on reclamationare provided by Daigle et al. (1988) andNilsson et al. (1990).

In 1993,an International Peat Society sym-posium on the theme of “Restoration ofTemperate Wetlands” was held in theUnited Kingdom to consider and reviewcurrent knowledge on the science of wet-land restoration (Wheeler et al. 1995). In1998, a second International Peat Societysymposium held in Duluth, Minnesotaprovided a venue for critically examining

peatland restoration and reclamation froma technical standpoint (Malterer et al.1998).

There are several options for peatlandreclamation. They include the transforma-tion of the site into a new, (but ecological-ly changed), functioning wetland providingvalues such as waterfowl habitat; develop-ment of an agricultural cropland; or aforestry plantation on-site.

Afforestation of depletedpeatlands (also termed cut-over peatlands) is practised inmany European countrieswith several techniques used.Most involve the use of thedrainage systems left at theconclusion of peat harvesting.In some cases, a 30 to 50 cm(or deeper) layer of peat is lefton the peatland for afforestation purposes.In other cases, deep ploughing is carriedout to blend the basal peat with the under-lying mineral soil. Fertilizer and lime mayalso be applied to enhance tree growth orincrease the pH. Similar techniques can beused to develop biomass production siteswhere rapidly growing species such as wil-low (Salix spp.), alder (Alnus spp.), or cat-tail (Typha spp.) can be harvested as a fuelsource.

Agricultural use of peatlands can also be aviable option for depleted peatlands.Agricultural development on the organicsoils characteristic of peatlands is commonin several parts of Canada, e.g. southernOntario, southern Quebec and the FraserDelta of southwestern British Columbia.Site preparation techniques, equipmentand fertilization requirements, for example,have been refined through experience(Parent et al. 1991, Lévesque et al. 1988,Parent 2000). A variety of crops is pro-duced including carrots, cabbage andonions.The technology used at these sitesis likely to be readily transferable for horti-cultural peatland reclamation.The existingdrainage system from peat harvestingwould facilitate agricultural use. As withmost agricultural endeavours, climate andgrowing season are major factors in theoverall viability of crop production.

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Scientists and peat producers visiting ThorneMoor in England.

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6.0 Peat BogRestoration,Reclamation andConservation

there is a reducedwater level relativeto natural condi-tions. The type ofvegetation, as well asthe rate of revegeta-tion, reflects this sit-uation. Species thatprefer “wet” condi-tions are infrequentwhereas species moretolerant of “dry”condi-tions tend to recolo-nize. The method ofpeat harvesting is alsoan important factor.Most abandoned siteshave until now beenblock-cut,leaving highridges interspersed

with low moist areas. The vacuum methodof peat harvesting, in wide use since theearly 1980s, leaves large expanses of dis-turbed terrain that present a much greaterchallenge to restoration. The drainagenetworks on peat harvesting sites aredesigned to control the water level in thepeatland. This network can also be used toinfluence the hydrologic regime duringrestoration of the peatland. For example,the drainage system can be blocked every50 metres to create open water reservoirsthat will help keep the peat substratemoist during the dry periods of summer(Larose et al. 1997).

The nutrient status of a peatland is also acontrolling factor on the rate of revegeta-tion and on the type of species that recol-onize a site. If a site is ombrotrophic(rain-fed, nutrient-poor), plant species tol-erant of these conditions are the mainrecolonizing species.Overall species diver-sity tends to be low, as is the case in a nat-ural ombrotrophic peatland. On minero-trophic sites, herbaceous species tend torepresent the initial phase of succession,followed by shrub and tree-dominatedcommunities. Species diversity is higherand the vegetation tends to be more robustthan that found under ombrotrophic con-ditions. Mineral seepage also controls therate of revegetation.Fen sites typically revege-tate in three to seven years. Ombrotrophicsites can take between one and two decades

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Establishment of waterfowl habitat is alsoa peatland reclamation option in certaincircumstances (Clarke-Whistler and Rowsell1982). When the configuration of the baseof the peatland is suitable, the drainagesystem can be blocked to create ponds orlakes. Revegetation of depleted peatlandswith naturally occurring wetland vegeta-tion is a viable peatland restoration optionand has become the favoured approachsince the early 1990s. A study by Nilssonet al. (1990) presents several case historiesfrom eastern Canada and the United Statesfor harvested peatlands that were aban-doned and allowed to naturally revegetate.The rate of revegetation was found to beas short as a few years on minerotrophicsites. For large expanses of ombrotrophicbogs, vegetation cover required in therange of 15 to 20 years to become fully re-established. Studies by Jonsson-Ninnisset al. (1991) and Lavoie et al. (1996) pro-vide more data on the subject from bogs inOntario and Quebec.

Several factors influence the nature andrate of revegetation.The hydrologic regimeat the site, nutrient status (ombrotrophicversus minerotrophic conditions), andproximity to other vegetation for recolo-nization all have significant influence.Thehydrologic regime is largely a function ofthe status of the peatland’s drainage sys-tem. If the drainage system is functional,

Cranberries growing on reclaimed peat bog near Lac St. Jean, Quebec.

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to revegetate in unmanaged locations.However, liming to reduce soil acidityaccelerates revegetation. Nitrogen, phos-phorous and potassium (NPK) amend-ments on ombrotrophic sites can result inrevegetation of naturally occurring speciesin less than five years (Nilsson et al. 1990).

The availability of species for recoloniza-tion is also a factor in the revegetation process.For some species,wind borne seeds enhancethe recolonization process. Other speciespropagate by less mobile methods (Campbellet al. 2000). Transplants of rhizomes (rootstructures) and plant fragments could beconsidered as a method of recolonization ofsome species. Transplants of clumps of shrubsand herbs also are a potential method ofrecolonization. In Germany, the retentionof strips of natural vegetation in the designof new peatland developments has beensuggested as a means to enhance the avail-ability of plants for propagation.

6.1 Restoration Field WorkIn February 1992, the CSPMA, the PeatResearch and Development Centre (PRDC)in New Brunswick and government agen-cies hosted a national workshop on peat-land reclamation methods and guidelines.Recommendations for fostering researchand appropriate technologies in support ofthe implementation of peatland reclama-tion and restoration were developed.

This national workshop led to a three-yearresearch project on peatland restoration,launched under the direction of Dr. LineRochefort of the Université Laval, whichlater became the Peatland Ecology ResearchGroup (PERG 2000). This project looks atrestoration from a Canadian standpoint,because information from research inEurope,while useful in a general sense,wasnot regarded as being particularly perti-nent to bogs in the North American con-text. It was recognized that the basicknowledge and techniques required forrestoration need to be developed in accor-dance with conditions in Canada in part-nership with the peat industry. Accordingto the objectives of the project, researchhas been conducted and is ongoing in sev-

eral of the following areas (Rochefort et al.1996) at eight peat producers’ operations.

1. Comparison of the hydrology and bio-geochemical cycles of natural and cut-over bog substrates.

Low recolonization success on base post-vacuum-harvested sites near Lac St.-Jean,Quebec indicate that physical and chemi-cal conditions have been modified. Soilmicrobiological, physical and chemicalparameters as well as hydrological condi-tions were studied at natural and cut-oversites. A rewetting model has shown thatpools contribute to stabilize the rise of thewater table as well as favour water storagethat in turn favours revegetation of thesite.

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Dr. Line Rochefort viewing the re-growth ofSphagnum moss on Bois-des-Bel peatland inQuebec.

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peatland sites and adjacent open areas indifferent parts of the province of Quebec.Results have confirmed there is no differ-ence in species richness and total bird pop-ulations at natural and well-regeneratedpost-block-cut sites. A few species were notpresent at post-vacuum-harvested sites.Peat harvesting activities were found tohave little negative effect on bird usage ofneighbouring natural sites, except possiblyon reproduction. Spiders and ground bee-tles were found to be more abundant onpeat harvested sites, because of the rela-tively drier conditions, while abundanceand species richness of ants were greateron natural sites.Changes in arthropod pop-ulations are a good indicator of site restora-tion progress.

4. Development of Sphagnum and vascu-lar plant reintroduction techniques.Sphagnum mosses constitute the mostimportant element of bog vegetationand are essential to the return of func-tional peat accumulating systems. Thesetechniques include evaluating theregeneration potential of Sphagnum,water management, fertilization, topog-raphy modification, as well as the use ofmulches and wind breaks.

Sphagnum fragments spread on post-vacuum-harvested sites have a high re-establishment

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Peat harvesting activities were found to sig-nificantly reduce the microbial flora; how-ever, results from field restoration trialssuggest rapid re-establishment of micro-organisms would likely occur followingrestoration.

2. Determination of factors that have anincidence on the establishment ofSphagnum mosses and the relativeimportance of these factors.

Natural and naturally revegetated siteswere studied to describe the biological andphysico-chemical conditions essential to peat-accumulating Sphagnum species. Detailedvegetation surveys were carried out atCacouna-Station,Quebec where post-block-cut and post-vacuum-harvested sites have suc-cessfully revegetated.Furthermore, paleoeco-logical studies were carriedout at well regeneratedsites. Results confirmchanges in the field con-ditions following re-storation of cut-over sites.The successive vegeta-tional changes indicateconditions are approach-ing those of natural sites,favouring the develop-ment of a vegetation covercomparable to that of anatural site. Sphagnumspecies have rapidly re-colonized post-block-cuttrenches and in manycases have accumulated aseveral centimetre layerof peat forming vegetation.

3. Evaluation of bird and arthropod popu-lations on both natural and developedbogs and identification of indicatorspecies (bio-indicators) to evaluate evo-lution of regenerated sites.

The identification of bio-indicator speciespresent on natural peatlands and at regen-erated sites may be used to evaluate thesuccess of the restoration. Bird populationsurveys were conducted at more than 200

Equipment used to spread Sphagnum spores to accelerate restorationof a harvested peatland.

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success rate. However, the collection ofsource material from natural sites, as wellas their storage conditions,have to be care-fully synchronized with field spreadingactivities. Results have indicated little dif-ference in Sphagnum regeneration successrates when field work is carried out in thefall versus in the spring.The latter has theadvantage of offering better floatability forheavy equipment, since partly frozen fieldconditions are present. Collection of thetop layer of vegetation fragments is alsofacilitated and the material can be storedfor several months without losing its abilityto regenerate.

Raising the water table to the bog surfacelevel seems to induce the most favourablehydrological conditions for the re-estab-lishment of most Sphagnum species.Diaspores are very much affected by theconditions at the air-soil level. A strawmulch was found to keep high moistureconditions, decrease air temperature at theair-soil interface and reduce light intensity,which all contribute to higher recoloniza-tion success.Although donor sites are neg-atively affected at collection time, studieshave shown that these sites regeneratewithin two to five years, causing no loss ofnatural sites and are ready to be used againas a donor site.

5. Preparation of a practical restorationguide.

The Peatland RestorationGuide (Quinty and Rochefort1997), published by theCSPMA, evolved from thisresearch effort. It promotesthe restoration of cut-overpeatland to an environmentsimilar to that which existedbefore harvesting. The docu-ment, in practical pocket-sizeformat, spells out the advan-tages of planning ahead, suchthat restoration can be inte-grated with bog development.It explains in user-friendlyterms the steps involved inreintroducing Sphagnum moss-es on abandoned sections ofpeatland.

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Straw blower used to spread as mulch over Sphagnumspores; one of the steps in restoring a harvested peatland.

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Peatland Restoration Guide.

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6.2 Bois-des-Bel Restoration ProjectBased on the positive results gained fromtheir research efforts, in 1999 PERG initiat-ed a large-scale restoration project on a sec-tion of the Bois-des-Bel peatland, nearRivière-du-Loup (Quebec). Research in siterestoration has been successful on smallplots at numerous cut-over bog areas inCanada. However, the hypothesis and tech-niques need to be tested at an industrialscale. The 11.5-hectare site,which support-ed peat harvesting activities until 1980, iswithin a relatively large natural peatlandwhich will allow comparison with the vari-ety of conditions found in the natural peat-land. Access to the site has been guaranteedfor 15 years. Field work was planned andimplemented during workshops held withthe active participation of Canadian peatproducers.

• As a pre-development strategy, a section of peatland should be preserved in a nat-ural state in order to ensure a supply of plants for future restoration work.

• The conservation of a peat layer at least 50 cm thick facilitates the regenerationprocess.

• One of the most important steps in the actual restoration process is to restorewater levels as close to the surface as possible by blocking drainage ditches every50 metres. This is often done as the last step.

• Crowned fields should be reshaped to form a depression in the centre or be flat-tened in combination of creating bunds or shallow basins.

• Advice is offered on the choice and appropriate size of plant collection sites aswell as on the actual collection and spreading of the plants.

• Mulch should be applied to create conditions favourable to the survival andgrowth of the applied plant fragments.

• A light phosphorous amendment improves the stability of the peat substratethrough the stimulation of vascular plant growth.

• Follow-up of restoration work should be done on a yearly basis, preferably by thesame observer, by monitoring plant cover on established observation stations.

• Regional variations, for example the frequent occurrence of strong winds or theabsence of access to a plant source, require adaptation of the above restorationtechniques.

• Research to improve the efficiency of existing methods and to measure the suc-cess of restoration efforts must continue.

Monitoring equipment used to measure carbonflux on the Bois-des-Bel peatland in Quebec.(Equipment of Dr. Mike Waddington and PhDstudent Rich Petrone of McMaster University.)

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The following is a summary of the recommendations found in the Guide and improve-ments made since:

Principal objectives for this large-scalerestoration project include validation ofrestoration techniques, evaluation ofhydrological processes, reconstitution ofpools, determination of biological produc-tivity and establishment of the nutritionalelements cycle, identification of the pointand conditions at which the site onceagain becomes a carbon sink, and finally,monitoring of re-establishment of site bio-diversity.

In the fall of 1999, site preparation includ-ing blocking of ditches, removal of shrubs,levelling of fields, creation of bunds acrossslope of drainage and creation of poolswas carried out. Sphagnum diaspores, col-lected from nearby sites, were spread onthe entire prepared area followed by anapplication of straw mulch and phospho-rous fertilizers.A step-by-step video of theprocess and instructions produced byPERG, can be purchased from theCanadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association(www.peatmoss.com) or PERG.

6.3 Other ResearchOther research initiatives include proto-type restoration plans for two peat vacu-um-harvested sites in New Brunswick, onein an early phase of development, the otherpartly at the post-vacuum-harvested state(Famous et al. 1995); and reintroduction ofblack spruce on shallow peat soils to act aswindbreak.

6.4 Application by the Canadian PeatIndustryBy the spring of 2000, all members of theCSPMA had committed to the principle ofrestoration and nine of the 15 members ofthe CSPMA had initiated restoration pro-jects based on the procedures outlined inthe Peatland Restoration Guide. Many ofthe companies’ employees have attendedhands-on restoration workshops conduct-ed by PERG at the Bois-des-Bel peatland inNovember 1999 and November 2000.

6.5 Status of Peatland Conservationin CanadaThe vast peatland resource in Canada is notextensively used.Only about 17,000 hectares

(0.02 percent) of the over 113 millionhectares (Table 1) of peatland in Canadaare used for horticultural peat or peat mossapplications. Almost no peatland area inCanada has to date been utilized for opera-tional peat fuel applications.An additional25,000 hectares have been drained forforestry production and a further severalmillion hectares is used for forest harvest-ing (mainly in winter for pulpwood). Incomparison, it has been estimated that,since the era when Canada was first set-tled,almost 20 million hectares of wetlandshave been converted to other land usesthrough agricultural development, urban-ization and a variety of other factors (seeFigure 4) (Rubec 1996).

An inventory of protected peatlands andwetlands in Canada is certainly required. Todate, there has not been a comprehensiveor systematic national compilation of peat-lands that are currently “protected” undersome form of federal, provincial or munici-pal legislation or through private sectorland stewardship initiatives. Nationally, it isestimated that about 10 percent ofCanada’s wetlands are protected fromdevelopment and much of this area con-sists of peatlands (Rubec 1996). Tarnocaiet al. (1995, 2000) have developed an inte-grated database on peatland distribution.Regional or provincial summaries or wet-land and peatland conservation plans areongoing.

However, in some areas, a reasonable bal-ance between development and protec-tion does exist. In eastern New Brunswick,for example, many raised bogs are used forhorticultural peat production.About 3,000hectares of similar peatlands are withinKouchibouguac National Park. This “known”level of protected peatlands of the sametype can be compared to the approximate-ly 4,000 hectares currently developed forpeat production in New Brunswick.About11,000 hectares of peatland in total areowned or leased by the peat harvestingcompanies in New Brunswick. An addition-al wetland area in excess of 5,000 hectareshas been secured in New Brunswick forenhancement as waterfowl habitat byDucks Unlimited Canada. The Province has

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require the cooperation of provincial andmunicipal governments, conservationgroups and industry. As peatlands will bea vital component of such a network, thepeat industry in Canada is a significant

stakeholder in this concept.Implementation of this strate-gy will involve the adoptionof systematic national andregional criteria for identifica-tion and management of sig-nificant wetlands and peat-lands. The federal policy alsoidentifies the key roles indus-try and governments musttake to promote both re-search and sustainable wiseuse of wetland resources inCanada.

In the 1990s, severalCanadian peatland systemshave been recognized asWetlands of InternationalImportance under the RamsarConvention. Three newRamsar sites designatedbetween 1993 and 1998 arepeatlands. These are the MerBleue (Ontario), the TabusintacEstuary and Lagoon (NewBrunswick), which includesdeep peat deposits andMinesing Swamp (Ontario)

(Rubec and Thibault 1998).

The peat industry in Canada is encourag-ing the development of peatlands inaccordance with environmentally soundpractices. Gerry Hood, President of theCSPMA, has noted that “Canadian peat pro-ducers have a new role to play, not only asproducers, but as people responsible tothe environment.” This view has notchanged since first stated in 1991. TheCSPMA has updated its peatland preserva-tion and reclamation policy,which encour-ages its member companies to approachbog development with a restoration per-spective and to cooperate with govern-ment and conservation bodies towardspreservation of appropriate bogs (CSPMA1999).

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also conducted studies to identify repre-sentative peatlands from each of the sevenpeatland zones in New Brunswick. Thesesites are proposed for protection as eco-logical reserves.

In 1991, the Government of Canada adopt-ed The Federal Policy on WetlandConservation (Government of Canada1991). The objective of this Policy, the firstof its kind by any nation in the world, is “topromote the conservation of Canada’s wet-lands to sustain their ecological and socio-economic functions, now and in thefuture.” The Policy outlines a series of “guid-ing principles.” These include recognitionthat on-going development and research isfundamental to the achievement of wet-land conservation.

One of the seven strategies for implement-ing this federal policy is the developmentof a national network of “secured wetlandsof significance to Canadians” that repre-sents the full range of wetland functionsand forms.The attainment of this goal will

Boardwalk and observation tower on Kelly’s Bog, KouchibouguacNational Park, New Brunswick.

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nvironmental regulations haveundergone substantial change inthe past decades. Environmentalimpact assessments are now com-

monplace for peatland developments inmany provinces. For example, theprovinces of New Brunswick and NovaScotia require that all undertakings thatinvolve more than two hectares of wetlandmust be registered for review to determinewhether a full environmental assessment isrequired. Several cases in Canada havearisen where developments for horticultur-al peat production have undergone review.Canadians have also had the fortune tolearn from European experience.Examplesfrom Canadian provinces and Europe arediscussed below.

7.1 Miscouche Bog, Prince EdwardIslandIn 1990-1991, a proposal to develop theMiscouche Bog on western Prince EdwardIsland was reviewed under that province’senvironmental assessment legislation. Thissite, the single largest bog in the province,is owned by the Acadian Land PurchaseTrust. In 1990, the Trust proposed econom-ic development of the peat on this site. Aprovincial Environment Assessment Panelwas established and public review wasundertaken. The proposal entailed provi-sion of 20 permanent and seasonal jobs anda $1.4 million development with an expect-ed 20-year production period of 100,000standard peat bales per year. The site wasidentified by the International BiologicalProgram in the 1970s as a site of interna-tional biological significance and is knownfor significant occurrence of numerousunusual plants considered rare in PrinceEdward Island. Hence, the Island NatureTrust,a non-government conservation foun-dation,proposed full protection of the area.

In February 1991, the Minister ofEnvironment for the province had receivedthe Panel’s recommendations and ruledthat the development proceed with the fol-lowing conditions:

(i) allow time for the scientific communityto transplant endangered plants from theMiscouche site to other secured areas.

(ii) the province compensate the scientif-ic community by acquisition of threeother important but smaller bogs onthe Island:Brae Harbour Bog,St.Peter’sBog and Wood Island Bog; these sitesbe turned over to the Island NatureTrust for long-term protection andmanagement.

(iii) the proponent provide for and becommitted to site restora-tion/reclamation after peatharvesting to either a nat-ural state or one useablefor an appropriate agri-cultural purpose.

Subsequently, in July 1991, the IslandNature Trust undertook a plant rescue mis-sion at this bog. Some 50 students during athree-day period moved over 2,000 rare orunusual plants amid considerable mediacoverage. The province has since proceed-ed with acquisition of the three designatedbogs for protection and the peat develop-ment project is underway.

7.2 Barrington Bog, Nova ScotiaIn Nova Scotia, a proposal to develop 32hectares of a 100-hectare peatland atBarrington was reviewed under the provin-cial Environmental Impact RegistrationProcess. Peat harvesting for fuel purposeswas the intended utilization. A study foundthat the thread leafed sundew (Drosera fil-iformis) grows on the peatland (and threeother sites in the area) and that the pro-posed development would endanger thisplant species (The Chronicle-Herald 1991).As a result, the Plant Subcommittee of theCommittee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada has added the plant toits endangered species list. The Nova Scotiaoccurrences are the most northerly report-ed occurrences of the plant. The plant isalso reported to occur in several NewEngland States and has been identified asrequiring “protection” in some states.However, the species is designated “com-mon” in some other United States GulfCoast states. The Nova Scotia Departmentof Environment determined a full environ-mental impact study would be necessary andrecommended that the proponent evaluate

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7.0 Case Studies

Following public hearings at which briefswere presented in 1997, the Governmentof New Brunswick adopted the Rural PlanRegulation for the unincorporated areas ofLamèque and Miscou Islands – TheCommunity Planning Act. This Act desig-nates as environmental protection areas allsalt marshes and preserves as many wet-lands as possible. All peat harvesting opera-tions on Lamèque Island can continue theiractivities in compliance with provincialregulations (Quarriable Substances Actand Clean Environment Act). Under thenew Act, peat-harvesting activities musthave minimal negative environmentaleffects by limiting particulate emissionsand by maintaining a 30 metre buffer zonefrom high water line and salt marshes.Rehabilitation of sites must be encouragedand all new applications for developmentmust be submitted to public hearings.Furthermore, the peat producers of thearea committed to support a recommenda-tion to prevent the harvesting of peat fromthe bogs on Miscou Island.

The Miscou Island peatland covers approx-imately 26 percent of the island and is thestopover site for numerous migratorybirds. To enable the public to view thebeauty of the bog and to watch the thou-sands of birds on their semi-annual trek,the

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an alternate location. The proponent subse-quently decided to abandon the project.

7.3 Bull Pasture Bog, New BrunswickIn New Brunswick, a proposal for a horti-cultural peat development on Bull PastureBog near Fredericton was reviewed underprovincial environmental impact legisla-tion and it was determined that an envi-ronmental impact assessment wasrequired. Terms of reference were pre-pared by the New Brunswick Departmentof Environment and made available forpublic review. Following much negativepublic pressure, the proponent decidednot to pursue the project.

7.4 Rural Development Plan forLamèque and Miscou Islands, NewBrunswickLocated at the northeastern extremity ofNew Brunswick, close to one-third of theterritory of Lamèque and Miscou Islands isoccupied by peat bogs and salt marshes,which are dispersed throughout the terri-tory. The population wished to regulatepresent and future development through arural plan to minimize the impact on theenvironment, promote harmonious devel-opment and preserve the rural character ofthe community.

Miscou Island conservation site.

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Miscou Island Conservation Board has builtelevated platforms and a walkway thatcurves through a section of the site, pass-ing by pools and through areas of herba-ceous plants and bog flowers. The CSPMAis helping maintain the site through finan-cial support.

7.5 Guidelines for Peat Mining inNew BrunswickThe expansion of peat harvesting activitiesin the province has led to a greater level ofawareness of the effects of this activity onthe environment. In 1998, Guidelines forPeat Mining Operations in NewBrunswick (Thibault 1998) was developedto help plan the commercial developmentof peatlands to minimize adverse effects onthe environment. The principal areas ofconcern are: the impact of drainage wateron receiving water bodies; the impact ofhabitat change on flora and fauna; the nui-sance effect of wind-blown peat particleson surrounding communities;and the issueof post-harvesting restoration or reclama-tion.The document also serves as a tool forgovernment agencies that review, evaluateor approve development proposals.

7.6 Wetland Policy in AlbertaThe draft Recommended Wetland Policyfor Alberta was created in 1994 by merg-ing the former Wetland Management in theSettled Area of Alberta with a draft policyfor managing Alberta’s peatlands and nonsettled wetlands. The objectives withrespect to peatlands include the formaldesignation of individual peatlands forpreservation, the allowance of activities onpeatlands and development of peatresources, and the mitigation of develop-ment on the environment. (Lynch-Stewartet al. 1999).

7.7 EuropeIn Britain, there has been an ongoing pub-lic debate over the continuing use of peat-lands. Conservation groups and peatproducers have engaged in a controversialmedia campaign to present their respec-tive points of view. A national boycott ofpeat products has been promoted by a

coalition of British environmental groupsas one method for attracting public interestin this debate.

In Ireland, the situation is less controversialbut conservation requirements are receiv-ing increased attention. The need toachieve a balance between developmentand conservation has been recognized byindustry (Welsby 1990). Much of Ireland’speat production for both fuel and horticul-tural purposes is administered by theNational Peat Board (Bord Na Mona) andthere is a statutory obligation to managethe peatlands in the best interest of thecountry. Non-government environmentalorganizations (such as the Irish PeatlandConservation Council), Bord Na Mona, andthe Irish Wildlife Service are working in apositive and co-operative manner to imple-ment a national peatland conservation pro-gram with defined targets and firm fundingproposals.

In countries such as Germany and theNetherlands, there are few peatlands thathave not been altered. In Scandinavia cer-tain peatland types are becoming scarcebut mechanisms for protection are inplace.Finland,Sweden and Norway all havepeatland ecological reserve or park pro-grams established to ensure completion ofprotected peatland networks.

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onversion of Canada’s vast wet-land and peatland resources dueto urbanization, industrial devel-opment and agricultural prac-

tices has been substantial, exceeding 20million hectares since the early 1800s. Thehorticultural peat industry in this contexthas impacted only a minor area – about17,000 hectares (less than 0.02 percent) ofall the peatland in Canada. Peatlands devel-

oped for horticul-tural purposes areprimarily situatedin the boreal wet-land regions andconsist mainly of

the bog wetland class.Boreal peatlands willlikely be affected by forestry, hydroelectricdevelopment and other programs to amuch more significant extent than by anyamount of horticultural peatland develop-ment in the future (Rubec 1996). Becausebogs are the main source of the Sphagnumpeat preferred by the peat industry, peatharvesting has had relatively little impacton the swamp, marsh and shallow waterwetland classes as these are less commonwetland classes in the boreal wetlandregions.

In the last decade there has been a signifi-cant shift in appreciation of the value ofCanada’s wetland resources. Wetland conser-vation has become an issue of public policy,which has resulted in the initiation of newwetland programs. Several environmentalissues related to peatland development havebeen identified. They include the need forconservation of flora, fauna and other eco-logical values or functions. The potential forrelease of carbon gases due to Canadian peatharvesting is considered to be insignificantin relation to other uses of carbon sourcessuch as the combustion of fossil fuel (i.e.coal, oil and natural gas), and is unlikely toinfluence global warming at the present orprojected levels of peatland developmentin Canada. On a site-specific basis, theinfluence and mitigation of the effects ofdrainage of peatlands for peat productionon water quality and flow regime arebeing addressed in Canada through exist-ing regulatory procedures and research.Site development guidelines to minimizeenvironmental effects have been devel-oped and implemented by the peat indus-

try. Reclamation and restoration of peat-lands after utilization is being addressed bythe industry in consultation with govern-ment and environmental groups. TheCSPMA, through its newly revised PeatlandPreservation and Reclamation Policy(CSPMA 1999) urges its members to restoreharvested bogs to functional peatlandsonce harvesting is ceased. Research onrestoration ecology and techniques spear-headed by the CSPMA has resulted in thepublication of the Peatland RestorationGuide (Quinty and Rochefort 1997) whichis a substantial aid to producers in theirrestoration efforts. Research results showthat post-harvested peatland can berestored in periods as short as three to sixyears. However, the time frame involved inthe return to a functional peat accumulat-ing system is a function of many factors andwill only be known as the results of suc-cessful restoration efforts become available.

Canada has extensive areas of peatlands ina natural state and has the opportunity toselect representative peatlands for conser-vation securement. This opportunity hasbeen lost in most European countrieswhere peat production has been practisedfor long periods. Although major peatlandsystems have been protected in Canadaincluding three sites listed under theRamsar Convention between 1993 and1998, development pressures are high insome regions and for certain wetlandtypes. Co-operative efforts on a long-termbasis between various levels of govern-ment, conservation groups and the peatindustry will be required to attain a nation-al network of secured wetlands.Such a net-work must represent the full range ofwetland functions and types including themany forms of peatlands across the country.

Current initiatives by the horticultural peatindustry in Canada indicate recognition bypeat production companies of theirresponsibilities and roles. The willingnessof the industry to be an active partner inwetland conservation and restoration withgovernments and private sector groupsprovides a positive atmosphere for theattainment of sustainable wise use ofCanada’s peatland resources.

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8.0 Summary

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Bergeron, M. 1996. Peat. Minerals andMetals Sector. Natural ResourcesCanada. Ottawa, Ontario. 6 p.

Brodeur, J. 1996. Outils d’évaluation du suc-cès de la restauration à l’aide de popu-lations d’arthropodes (fourmis,carabeset araignées). In La restauration destourbières exploitées : le développe-ment d’une stratégie intégrée auQuébec. Edited by L. Rochefort and F.Quinty. Quebec, Quebec. pp. 56-65.

Buteau, P. 1989. Atlas des tourbières duQuébec méridional. Report No.DV89-02. Geological Survey of Quebec.Quebec Ministry of Resources andEnergy. Ste-Foy,Quebec.

Campbell, D.R., L. Rochefort and C. Lavoie.2000. The Colonisation Potential ofPeatland Plants Recolonising Post-Vacuum-Extracted Bogs. In SustainingOur Peatlands. Proceedings of the11th International Peat Congress.Quebec, Canada.August 2000. 2 vols.Edited by L.Rochefort and J.Y.Daigle.pp. 670-674.

Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association(CSPMA). 1999. Preservation andReclamation Policy.(Revised November,1999). St. Albert, Alberta. 2 p.

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CSPMA Preservation and Reclamation Policy

1. StatementThe members of the Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association will assist and co-operate, wherever possible, with all recognized conservation bodies that are pre-pared to give constructive help towards complying with this policy. Opportunities willbe taken to enhance the public’s awareness and enjoyment of our wetland and peat-land areas.

2. Aims and ObjectivesThe CSPMA encourages its members to:

2.1 Reduce the impact of their operations on the environment andstrive for maximum land restoration to the continuing benefit ofthe community.

2.2 Undertake studies, prior to opening new bogs, to ascertain the flora andfauna of virgin peatlands.

2.3 Identify areas of greatest environmental interest and, where possible, leavethese undisturbed to act as a refugia when harvesting ceases.

2.4 Cooperate with recognized conservation bodies in the management of refu-gia or other areas not required for peat production.

2.5 Work with provincial governments to designate appropriate peat bogs asreserve or parkland for the purposes of study and recreation.

3. Peat ProductionThe CSPMA encourages its members to:

3.1 Implement a practice of bog management in a way that will keep productionacreage to a minimum. Operators should avoid preparing peat bogs for har-vesting too far in advance of needs, and initiate reclamation procedures assoon as practical after harvesting stops.

3.2 Leave a buffer zone of original vegetation when bogs are cleared for har-vesting.

3.3 When opening new acreage for harvesting,use the top spit material from thebog to spread on other bogs that are ready for restoration.

3.4 Leave a layer of peat beneath the harvest level when work ceases, relevant tothe peat-type and area, in order to facilitate plant re-growth.

3.5 Plan bog drainage systems being mindful that the most preferred reclamationprocedures require damming of ditches to restore the water table.

4. After-useThe CSPMA urges its members to put in place appropriate after-use, such as:

4.1 Apply best-efforts to return a cut-over bog to a functioning peatland usingrecommended restoration techniques. (See Peatland Restoration Guide).

4.2 Where it is impractical or impossible to fulfill point 4.1, develop a plan thatwould include farming the land, planting trees for reforestation or returningit to a functioning wetland and/or wildlife habitat.

Revised and approved in November, 1999.

Appendix