Canadian Constitutional Law

Fourth Edition

THE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW GROUP

Executive Editors

Patrick MacklemUniversity of Toronto

Joel BakanUniversity of British Columbia

John BorrowsUniversity of Victoria

Sujit ChoudhryUniversity of Toronto

Robin ElliotUniversity of British Columbia

Jean-Francois Gaudreault-DesBiensUniversity of Toronto

Donna GreschnerUniversity of Saskatchewan

Editors

Patricia HughesUniversity of Calgary

Carol RogersonUniversity of Toronto

Jean LeclairUniversite de Montreal

Ian LeeUniversity of Toronto

Richard MoonUniversity of Windsor

R.C.B. RiskUniversity of Toronto

Kent RoachUniversity of Toronto

Bruce RyderOsgoode Hall Law School

David SchneidermanUniversity of Toronto

Lorraine WeinribUniversity of Toronto

2010EMOND MONTGOMERY PUBLICATIONS LIMITED

TORONTO, CANADA

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface to the Fourth Edition iiiAcknowledgments vShort Table of Contents xiTable of Cases xxxi

PART ONE INTRODUCTION

Chapter One Introduction 3The Elements of the Canadian Constitution 4The Sources of the Canadian Constitution 5From Colony to Independent Nation State 6Perspectives on the Constitution 8Constitutional Change 9The Lawyers Role 10Reference re Secession of Quebec 11Notes 25A Brief Tour of What Is to Follow 27

Chapter Two Judicial Review and Constitutional Interpretation 29I. Judicial Review and the Legitimacy Issue 29

British Columbia v. Imperial Tobacco Canada Ltd 31Notes and Questions 36British Columbia (Attorney General) v. Christie 36Notes and Questions 39

II. Constitutional Interpretation 40R. Elliot, "References, Structural Argumentation, and the

Organizing Principles of Canada's Constitution" 40Notes and Questions 43A. Prentice et al., Canadian Women: A History 43Reference re Meaning of the Word "Persons" in Section 24

of the British North America Act, 1867 45Edwards v. AG Canada 49Notes 54

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III. Triggering Judicial Review and Procedural Issues 54A. How Do Constitutional Issues Get to Court? 54

1. Ordinary Litigation and the Rules of Standing 542. The Reference Procedure 56

B. Notice Requirements 58C. Parties and Intervenors 59

PART TWO FEDERALISM

Chapter Three From Contact to Confederation 63I. Pre-Contact, Contact, and the Myth of Terra Nullius 64

P. Macklem, Indigenous Difference and theConstitution of Canada 65

II. New France: Canada's First European Constitutional Regime 66III. From Acadia to Nova Scotia: The Genesis of the Maritimes 69IV. The Expansion and Consolidation of British North America: From the

Conquest of New France to the Constitutional Act, 1791 72V. Troubles in the Colonies: The Quest for Self-Government, the Rebellions,

and the Union Act of 1840 75VI. Confederation 77

G. Stevenson, Unfulfilled Union 77A. Silver, The French-Canadian Idea of Confederation,

1864-1900 83J. Saywell, The Lawmakers: Judicial Power and the Shaping of

Canadian Federalism 86Notes 91A Note on Quebec's Civil Code 92

Chapter Four The Late Nineteenth Century:The Canadian Courts Under the Influence 95

Citizens Insurance Company v. Parsons 97Russell v. The Queen 104Hodge v. The Queen 107Note on the McCarthy Act Reference I l lAG Ontario v. AG Canada (The Local Prohibition Reference) . . 114Note: The Nature of Federalism 119Note: The Compact Theory 121Note: The Power of Disallowance 122The Manitoba Schools Question 123

Chapter Five The Early Twentieth Century:The Beginnings of Economic Regulation 129

Lord R.B. Haldane, "Lord Watson" 129Reference re The Board of Commerce Act, 1919 & The Combines

and Fair Prices Act, 1919 133

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Fort Frances Pulp and Paper Company v. Manitoba FreePress Company 138

Notes 141Toronto Electric Commissioners v. Snider 142Note: Lord Haldane and the Trade and Commerce Power 145The King v. Eastern Terminal Elevator Co. 146H.A. Smith, "The Residue of Power in Canada" 151J.R. Mallory, Social Credit and the Federal Power in Canada . . . 152A. Cairns, "The Judicial Committee and Its Critics" 154

Chapter Six The 1930s: The Depression and the New Deal 159Proprietary Articles Trade Association v. AG Canada 159Reference re the Regulation and Control of Aeronautics

in Canada 161Reference re Regulation and Control of Radio Communication

in Canada 163R. Simeon and I. Robinson, State, Society, and the Development

of Canadian Federalism 167W.P.M. Kennedy, "Our Constitution in the Melting Pot" 169V. Macdonald, "Judicial Interpretation of the

Canadian Constitution" 170AG Canada v. AG Ontario (Labour Conventions) 171AG Canada v. AG Ontario

(The Employment and Social Insurance Act) 176AG British Columbia v. AG Canada

(The Natural Products Marketing Act) 177F.R. Scott, "Some Privy Counsel" 187

Chapter Seven Federalism and the Modern Canadian State 189K. Norrie, R. Simeon, and M. Krasnick, Federalism and the

Economic Union 190Note 197

Chapter Eight Interpreting the Division of Powers 199I. Values Informing the Interpretation of the Division of Powers 200

R. Simeon, "Criteria for Choice in Federal Systems" 200Notes and Questions 206

II. Validity: Characterization of Laws 207A. Pith and Substance 207

K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism:The Laskin-Dickson Years 207

W.R. Lederman, "Classification of Laws and theBritish North America Act" 210

R v. Morgentaler 215Notes and Questions 224

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Reference re Employment Insurance Act (Can.), ss. 22 and 23 .. 226Notes and Questions 234

B. Double Aspect Doctrine 235W.R. Lederman, "Classification of Laws and the

British North America Act" 235Multiple Access Ltd. v. McCutcheon 237Notes 240

C. Necessarily Incidental 241General Motors of Canada Ltd. v. City National Leasing 242Notes 246B. Ryder, "The Demise and Rise of the Classical Paradigm in

Canadian Federalism: Promoting Autonomy for theProvinces and First Nations" 247

III. Applicability: The Interjurisdictional Immunity Doctrine 249McKay v. The Queen 251Notes and Questions 254Bell Canada v. Quebec (Commission de la sante et de la

securite du travail) (Bell #2) 257Notes and Questions 262Canadian Western Bank v. The Queen in Right of Alberta 264Notes and Questions 271

IV. Operability: The Paramountcy Doctrine 272Ross v. Registrar of Motor Vehicles 273Multiple Access Ltd. v. McCutcheon 277Notes and Questions 281Bank of Montreal v. Hall 282Notes and Questions 286Rothmans, Benson & Hedges Inc. v. Saskatchewan 289Notes and Questions 293

Chapter Nine Peace, Order, and Good Government 295Note on the Historical Development of the P.O.G.G. Power.. . 295K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism:

The Laskin-Dickson Years 298Reference re Anti-Inflation Act 303Note: The Anti-Inflation Case and Extrinsic Evidence 319Note: Emergency Legislation After the

Anti-Inflation Reference 321Note: The National Concern Doctrine After Anti-Inflation 322R v. Crown Zellerbach Canada Ltd. 323Notes and Questions 335Note: Jurisdiction Over the Environment 342Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada

(Minister of Transport) 342Note: Other Developments 344

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Chapter Ten Economic Regulation 349I. The Constitution and the Economy 349

Black and Co. v. Law Society of Alberta 350Note: The Extent of Internal Trade Barriers 352Canadian Egg Marketing Agency v. Richardson 353

II. Provincial Powers Over Economic Regulation 356A. General Principles 356

Carnation Co. Ltd. v. Quebec Agricultural Marketing Board ... 356Note on AG Manitoba v. Manitoba Egg and

Poultry Association 360Notes and Questions 364Note on Re Agricultural Products Marketing Act 365Notes and Questions 368

B. Natural Resources 368R. Simeon and I. Robinson, State, Society and the

Development of Canadian Federalism 369Canadian Industrial Gas and Oil Ltd. v.

Government of Saskatchewan 370Notes 375Central Canada Potash Co. Ltd. v.

Government of Saskatchewan 375Note on Proprietary Rights 378Note on Section 92A 379Note on Offshore Minerals 381

III. Federal Powers Over Economic Regulation 381A. Regulation of Interprovincial and International Trade 382

The Queen v. Klassen 382Notes 384B. Laskin, "Note on The Queen v. Klassen" 385Caloil Inc. v. AG Canada 387K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism:

The Laskin-Dickson Years 388Note on Dominion Stores Ltd. v. The Queen 388Note on the Federal Power to Implement

International Agreements 390B. General Regulation of Trade 390

K. Swinton, The Supreme Court and Canadian Federalism:The Laskin-Dickson Years 390

Note on Labatt Breweries of Canada Ltd. v. AG Canada 392Notes 394General Motors of Canada Ltd. v. City National Leasing 396Notes and Questions 406Kirkbi AG v. Ritvik Holdings Inc 408

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IV. Strengthening the Canadian Economic Union 413A. Constitutional Reform to Reduce Barriers 413

Report of the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and theHouse of Commons, A Renewed Canada 414

Questions 415B. Constitutional Change Through Intergovernmental Cooperation:

The Agreement on Internal Trade 416C. Constitutional Change Through the Courts 417D. Constitutional Change Through International Agreements 418

Chapter Eleven Criminal Law 421I. Federal Powers Over Criminal Law 421

Reference re Validity of Section 5(a) of the Dairy Industry Act(Margarine Reference) 422

Notes 423RJR MacDonald Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General) 425Note: The Requirement of a Criminal Form 432R v. Hydro-Quebec 433Notes 443Note: Reference re Firearms Act (Can.) 445Note: Reference re Assisted Human Reproduction Act

(Quebec Court of Appeal) 448II. Provincial Power to Regulate Morality and Public Order 451

Re Nova Scotia Board of Censors v. McNeil 452Notes 455Westendorp v. The Queen 456Note 458Note: Provincial Commissions of Inquiry and the

Criminal Law Power 461

Chapter Twelve Instruments of Flexibility in the Federal System 463I. Policy Instruments and Flexible Federalism 464

A. The Spending Power 464K.G. Banting, "The Past Speaks to the Future: Lessons from

the Postwar Social Union" 464Note on Shared-Cost Programs 466The Spending Power and the Constitution 468Normative Critiques and Defences of the Spending Power. . . . 471Note on Proposed Constitutional Amendments 474Note on the Enforcement of National Standards 475Note on Equalization 477Note on Federal Taxation Powers 478

Detailed Table of Contents xxi

B. Intergovernmental Agreements 478Reference Re Canada Assistance Plan (BC) 478Notes 480

C. Delegation 481Coughlin v. Ontario Highway Transport Board 482

II. Amending the Constitution 485A. The Canadian Process of Constitutional Amendment 485

1. Design Issues 4852. The Canadian Amendment Process 486

B. Evaluating the Amending Formula 4881. Constitutional Amendment After 1982 4882. Is Part V Undemocratic? 4903. Constitutional Amendment and Quebec Sovereignty 491

Reference re Secession of Quebec 493Notes 498

PART THREE THE JUDICIARY

Chapter Thirteen The Judicial Function 505I. Introduction 505

II. The Court Structure 505Note on the Federal Court of Canada and Its Jurisdiction 507Note on the Jurisdiction of Provincial Superior Courts

Over Constitutional Issues 509III. Separation of Powers and Section 96 510

Note on John East Iron Works 511Reference re Residential Tenancies Act 513Notes 516Sobeys Stores Ltd. v. Yeomans and Labour Standards

Tribunal (NS) 516Reference re Amendments to

the Residential Tenancies Act (NS) 521McEvoy v. Attorney General of New Brunswick and

Attorney General of Canada 527Note on Section 96 Constraints on Parliament 530Note on Appellate and Review Jurisdiction 532Crevier v. Quebec (Attorney General) 534

IV. The Independence of the Judiciary 536Note on the Provincial Judges Reference 538

V. The Judicial Appointment Process 541

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PART FOUR ABORIGINAL PEOPLES

Chapter Fourteen Aboriginal Peoples and the Constitution 545I. Introduction 545

II. Common Law Foundations of Constitutional Recognition 546Canada, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Report,

vol. 2, Restructuring the Relationship 547Guerin v. The Queen 551Notes 558

III. The Constitutional Entrenchment of Aboriginal Rights 558R v. Sparrow 558Notes 571R v. Van derPeet 571Notes 583R v. Gladstone 585Notes 589

IV. Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal Title 592Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 594Notes and Questions 610

V. Treaty Rights 613Patrick Macklem, "First Nations Self-Government and the

Borders of the Canadian Legal Imagination" 613R v. Marshall 615Notes and Questions 626

VI. The Duty to Consult 629VII. Metis Rights 633

R v. Powley 634VIII. Distribution of Legislative Authority 641

Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 642Notes 645

IX. Aboriginal Rights of Self-Government 646R v. Pamajewon 647Notes 649Patrick Macklem, Indigenous Difference and the Constitution

of Canada 650Mitchell v. MNR 658

Detailed Table of Contents xxiii

PART FIVE RIGHTS

Chapter Fifteen Antecedents of the Charter 671I. The Common Law Constitution 671

A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law ofthe Constitution 672

W. Kaplan, State and Salvation: The Jehovah's Witnesses andTheir Fight for Civil Rights 674

Roncarelli v. Duplessis 677II. Rights and Federalism 682

A. Federalism and Race 683Union Colliery Co. v. Bryden 684Cunningham v. Tomey Homma 686B. Ryder, "Racism and the Constitution: British Columbia

Anti-Asian Legislation, 1872-1923" 687Quong Wing v. The King 688

B. The Implied Bill of Rights 694Reference re Alberta Statutes 694Saumur v. City of Quebec 699Switzman v. Elbling 705Dupond v. City of Montreal etal. 709

III. The Canadian Bill of Rights 712The Canadian Bill of Rights 712

Chapter Sixteen The Advent of the Charter 719I. Introduction 719

II. The Adoption of the Charter 719The Honourable Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Minister of Justice,

A Canadian Charter of Human Rights, January 1968 719A. Cairns, Charter Versus Federalism: The Dilemmas of

Constitutional Reform 722P. Russell, "The Political Purposes of the Canadian Charter of

Rights and Freedoms" 725L. Weinrib, "Of Diligence and Dice: Reconstituting

Canada's Constitution" 728L.E. Weinrib, "Canada's Charter of Rights: Paradigm Lost?" . . . 730M.E. Gold, "The Mask of Objectivity: Politics and Rhetoric in

the Supreme Court of Canada" 734III. The Merits of Entrenchment and the Legitimacy of Judicial Review 736

W. Bogart, Courts and Country 737A. Petter, "Immaculate Deception: The Charter's

Hidden Agenda" 739L. Weinrib," 'Limitations on Rights' in a

Constitutional Democracy" 743

xxiv Detailed Table of Contents

P.W. Hogg and A.A. Bushell, "The Charter Dialogue BetweenCourts and Legislatures (Or Perhaps the Charter of RightsIsn't Such a Bad Thing After All)" 746

Vriend v. Alberta 751

Chapter Seventeen The Framework of the Charter 757I. Interpreting Rights 757

A. The Purposive Approach 757Hunter v. Southam 758Notes and Questions 760

B. Aids to Interpretation 7611. Interpretive Provisions in the Charter 7622. Parliamentary and Committee Debates 7623. Canadian Pre-Charter Jurisprudence 7634. Comparative and International Sources 763

Patrick Macklem, "Social Rights in Canada" 764II. Defining Limitations: Section 1 765

A. Prescribed by Law 766R v. Nova Scotia Pharmaceutical Society 769

B. Justification 7741. The Oakes Test 774

R v. Oakes 774Notes and Questions 777

2. The Subsequent Development of the Oakes Test:Context and Deference 780

Edmonton Journal v. Alberta (Attorney General) 781Irwin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (Attorney General) 783Sujit Choudhry, "So What Is the Real Legacy of Oakes7.

Two Decades of Proportionality Analysis Under theCanadian Charter's Section 1" 787

III. The Override 790Ford v. Quebec (Attorney General) 791Notes and Questions 795

Chapter Eighteen Application 797I. Introduction: The Debate About Application to Private Action 797

Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v.Dolphin Delivery Ltd 797

Notes and Questions 800II. Governmental Action 802

A. Governmental Actors 8021. Entities Controlled by Government 803

McKinney v. University ofGuelph 803Notes 8 0 7

Detailed Table of Contents xxv

2. Entities Exercising Governmental Functions 811Godbout v. Longueuil (City) 811Notes 815

B. Governmental Acts 8161. Entities Implementing Government Programs 816

Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 8162. Entities Exercising Statutory Powers of Compulsion 819

Notes 820III. Governmental Inaction 821

Vriend v. Alberta 821Notes 823

IV. Application of the Charter to Courts and the Common Law 825A. Reliance by Government on Common Law 825B. Reliance on Common Law in Private Litigation 826

Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto 827Notes 829

V. Territorial Limits on the Application of the Charter 830VI. Who Is Protected by the Charter? 835

Chapter Nineteen Freedom of Religion 837I. Introduction 837

II. Sunday Observance and the Scope of Section 2(a) 842R v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd 843Notes and Questions 850Edwards Books and Art Ltd. v. The Queen 851Notes and Questions 862

III. The Restriction and Accommodation of Religious Practice 865Syndicat Northcrest v. Amselem 865Notes and Questions 876Gerard Bouchard and Charles Taylor, Building the Future:

A Time for Reconciliation 878Note: Multani v. Commission scolaire

Marguerite-Bourgeoys 880Congregation des temoins de Jehovah de St-Jerome-Lafontaine

v. Lafontaine (Village) 880Notes and Questions 884Alberta v. Hutterian Brethren of Wilson Colony 885Trinity Western University v. British Columbia College

of Teachers 906Notes and Questions 913

IV. Government Support for Religion 915Zylberberg v. Sudbury Board of Education (Director) 916Notes and Questions 921Chamberlain v. Surrey School District No. 36 925Notes and Questions 933

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V. Religious Families and Religious Communities 934Note: Section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 and the

Public Funding of Religious Schools 935Adler v. Ontario 937Notes 949Note: B.(R.) v. Children's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto ... 950Bruker v. Marcovitz 951Notes and Questions 962

Chapter Twenty Freedom of Expression 963I. Introduction: Purposes of the Guarantee 963

R v. Keegstra 963R. Moon, The Constitutional Protection of Freedom

of Expression 966II. The Scope and Limits of Freedom of Expression 970

Retail, Wholesale and Department Store Union, Local 580 v.Dolphin Delivery Ltd 971

Notes and Questions 973twin Toy Ltd. v. Quebec (AG) 975Notes and Questions 984

HI. Commercial Expression 987RJR MacDonald Inc. v. Canada (Attorney General) 988Notes and Questions 1003Canada (Attorney General) v. JTI-Macdonald Corp. 1005Notes and Questions 1015R v. Guignard 1015Notes and Questions 1017

IV. Hate Speech 1017R v. Keegstra 1018Notes and Questions 1035

V. Regulation of Sexually Explicit Expression 1041R v. Butler 1042Notes and Questions 1053Note: Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v. Canada

(Minister of Justice) 1054R v. Labaye 1059Note: R v. Sharpe 1066Questions 1068

VI. Controls on Election Spending 1069Harper v. Canada (Attorney General) 1069Notes and Questions 1088

VII. Access to Public Property 1089Montreal (City) v. 2952-1366 Quebec Inc 1090Notes and Questions 1098

Detailed Table of Contents xxvii

VIII. State Support for Expression 1102Haig v. Canada 1102Notes and Questions 1106Native Women's Assn. of Canada v. Canada 1106Baier v. Alberta 1111Notes and Questions 1116

Chapter Twenty-One Freedom of Association 1117I. Introduction 1117

II. The Right to Associate with Others 1118Note on the Labour Trilogy 1118Notes on Professional Institute of the Public Service of Canada

v. Northwest Territories 1125P. Macklem, "Developments in Employment Law:

The 1990-91 Term" 1126Dunmore v. Ontario (Attorney General) 1128Health Services and Support-Facilities Subsector Bargaining

Assn. v. British Columbia 1135Notes 1147

III. The Freedom Not to Associate with Others 1148R v. Advance Cutting & Coring Ltd 1152

Chapter Twenty-Two Life, Liberty, and Security of the Person 1159I. Introduction 1159

Reference re Section 94(2) of the Motor Vehicle Act (BC) 1161II. Section 7 and Bodily Integrity 1164

R v. Morgentaler 1165Note on Abortion: Some Other Issues 1177Rodriguez v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1178Notes 1189

III. Life, Liberty, and Security of the Person and Decisional Autonomy 1192B.(R.) v. Children's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto 1193

IV. Section 7 and Social Citizenship 1197Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1197Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1205Notes 1228

Chapter Twenty-Three Equality Rights 1231I. The Constitutional History of Equality 1231

W.S. Tarnopolsky, "The Equality Rights" 1232W.S. Tarnopolsky, "The Equality Rights in the Canadian

Charter of Rights and Freedoms" 1233Note: The Equal Protection Clause in the US Constitution 1235D. Gibson, The Law of the Charter: Equality Rights 1236

xxviii Detailed Table of Contents

II. Early Interpretation and Application of Section 15: The Andrews Test andthe 1995 Trilogy 1237

Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia 1237Notes 1243

III. The "Equality Trilogy of 1995" 1248IV. The Law Test 1250

Law v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) ... 1250Notes and Questions 1266

V. The Kapp Test 1268R v. Kapp 1268Notes 1277

VI. Equality's Three Steps 1280A. Differential Treatment 1280

Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1280Notes 1286C. Sheppard, "Of Forest Fires and Systemic Discrimination:

A Review of British Columbia (Public Service EmployeeRelations Commission) v. BCGSEU" 1289

Auton (Guardian ad litem of) v. British Columbia(Attorney General) 1293

B. Enumerated and Analogous Grounds 1297D. Pothier, "Connecting Grounds of Discrimination to

Real People's Real Experiences" 1298Corbiere v. Canada

(Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs) 1300Notes 1305

C. The Appropriate Comparator Group 1307Hodge v. Canada

(Minister of Human Resources Development) 1308Auton (Guardian ad litem of) v. British Columbia

(Attorney General) 1312Notes and Questions 1314

D. Disadvantage/Discrimination 1315M.v.H. 1315Notes and Questions 1322Note: Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General) 1325Note: Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law

v. Canada (Attorney General) 1326Note: The Implications of R v. Kapp for the

Disadvantage/Discrimination Analysis 1327S.R. Moreau, "The Wrongs of Unequal Treatment" 1328

Detailed Table of Contents xxix

Chapter Twenty-Four Language Rights 1337I. Introduction 1337

A. Braen, "Language Rights" 1338P. A. Coulombe, Language Rights in French Canada 1340

II. Language Rights and the Constitution 1343A. The Federal Bargain 1343B. Charter Language Rights 1346

III. Interpreting Language Rights 1347AG Quebec v. Blaikie (No. 1) 1347Notes 1348Societe des Acadiens du Nouveau-Brunswick Inc. v.

Association of Parents for Fairness in Education 1349Notes 1353Mahe v. Alberta 1355D. Reaume and L. Green, "Education and Linguistic Security

in the Charter" 1362Notes 1366Ford v. Quebec (AG) 1368Notes 1373

IV. Proposals for Constitutional Amendment 1375

Chapter Twenty-Five Enforcement of Rights 1377I. Remedies 1377

A. Introduction 1377K. Roach, Constitutional Remedies in Canada 1378

B. Remedies Under Section 52(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982 13801. Introduction and Overview 1380

Schachter v. Canada 13812. Underinclusive Laws and Reading In 1391

Vriend v. Alberta 1391M.v.H. 1398Notes and Questions 1400

3. Limits on the Availability of Retroactive Relief and the Justificationfor Prospective Relief 1401

Canada (Attorney General) v. Hislop 1401Notes and Questions 1409

4. Severance and Reading Down 14095. Constitutional Exemptions 14126. Temporary Suspension of the Declaration of Invalidity 1413

C. Remedies Under Section 24(1) of the Charter 1414Little Sisters Book and Art Emporium v. Canada 1415Notes and Questions 1420Note on Structural Injunctions 1420

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Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education) 1421Notes and Questions 1436Note on Damages 1436

II. Standing: Who Can Raise Charter Issues? 1437III. Jurisdiction: Where Can Charter Issues Be Raised? 1439

Notes and Questions 1442